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B. Read the sentences. Complete each sentence with one of the words in bold from ex.A. change the from if necessary.
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1. It’s only recently that ‘birthing partners’ have been allowed to be present in the _____________room.
2. Behind the iris is the soft, elastic ______________that widens or contracts under different lighting conditions.
3. The ________will need to take the prescription to the pharmacist in order to get the medication.
4. The heart is a muscular pump, dependent on a series of four ____________that enable it to function.
5. Take the patient’s ___________by asking him or her about their past and current medical problems.
6. You will be taken down to _____________for your operation once you have been seen by the anesthetist.
7. The patient was _________to the Emergency Unit following a near-fatal car-accident, and is currently on a ____________.
8. The nurse will change the _________on your wound now, but the ________on your leg won’t come off for another week or so.
2.2 Смешение графического облика слов.
Это явление широко распространено на первых этапах перевода английской научно-технической литературы. Если обратить внимание на наиболее распространенные случаи смешения графического облика слов, то можно предупредить ошибки, в основном обусловленные невнимательностью.
1. Only — the only.
Хорошо известное наречие only — «только» часто смешивают с the only, которое означает «единственный».
Наличие перед only артикля указывает на то, что the only является прилагательным, отвечающим на вопрос «какой». Следовательно, the only не может означать «только», а переводится как «единственный».
He was the only expert who accepted our point of view.
2. Some — the same.
Some — количественное местоимение.
The same —прилагательное со значением «тот же». Хотя это хорошо известно, эти слова нередко путают.
We had the same problem with some diagnostic procedure.
The patient was asked some questions.
3. Because — because of.
Because — союз «потому что», и за ним следует подлежащее.
Because of— предлог «из-за», «вследствие», и за ним следует обстоятельство.
Смешение этих двух значений приводит к искажению перевода. Замена предлога союзом превращает обстоятельство в подлежащее и, соответственно, неличную форму глагола или другую часть речи — в сказуемое, что ведет к искажению смысла предложения.
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Упражнение 1.
Установите значение следующих слов, значение которых также не следует смешивать.
1.tо accept - to except
2. tо affect— to effect
3. about — above
4. tо ascribe — to describe
5. tо arise — to rise
6. tо attack — to attach
7. band — bond
8. beside — besides
9. before long — long before
10. coarse— course— of course
11. tо confirm — to conform with
12. considerable— considered
16. continuous — continued
Упражнение 2.
Изучите пары слов и приведите примеры употребления некоторых из них.
1. Except — «за исключением», to expect — «ожидать»
2. Ingenious— «изобретательный»; ingenuous— «простой»
3. Inter (приставка) — «между»; intra (приставка) —«внутри»
4. Last — «последний»; at last — «наконец»
5. Least — «наименьший»; at least — «по крайней мере»
6. То note — «отмечать»; to notice — «замечать»
7. Object — «цель», «предмет»; to object — «возражать»
8. Once — «однажды»; at once — «тотчас», «немедленно»
9. Present — «присутствующий», «настоящий»; to present — «представлять»; to be present — «присутствовать»
10. Principal — «главный»; principle — «принцип»
11. To precede— «предшествовать»; to proceed— «протекать»
12. To prove — «доказывать», «оказываться»; to provide —«Давать», «обеспечивать»
13. Successive — «последовательный»; successful — «успешный»
14. Unable— «неспособный»; to enable— «позволять» «давать возможность»
15. Variable— «переменный», «переменная величина»-various — «разнообразный», varied — «различный»
16. То vary — «изменять(ся)»; very — «очень».
Упражнение 3.
Проанализируйте употребление слов со смешением графического образа.
1. The lecturer usually delivers the material very clearly, so no questions arise.
2. The temperature of the Moon's surface begins quickly to rise as soon as the sun rises over the lunar horizon.
3. Many senior tutors raise their skill at the classes of doctors’ skills upgrading department.
4. Besides sport clubs, reading clubs and debating clubs аre very popular among Oxbridge students.
5. Scientific research is being carried on is all higher schools bеsides educational work.
6. All previous cases of unsatisfactory operation of the machine must be taken, into account in the finishing experiment.
7. In case of good weather the aircraft will reach the polar station in seven hours.
8. In the course of training students of a higher school do much practical work.
9. Some students in Russia except for those who do not study properly receive state grants.
10. The further investigation of the problem seems to be unreasonable.
⃰11. Wide use of plastics in everyday life is a characteristics feature of our age.
12. Future social workers not only master their specialty but also take an active part in social life.
13. In the last half of the 19th century chemists tried to obtain new synthetic materials.
14. Russian higher schools helped to train more than 110,000 foreign specialists in the last 25 years.
15. All tests were conducted at least twice.
16. The nucleus is built up of a number of particles of nearly equal mass.
17. The number of scientists who gave their lives in the name of Science is great all over the world.
18. D.I. Mendeleev arranged the elements in the order of their chemical weights.
19. D.I. Mendeleev not only suggested new elements but also predicted their properties.
20. It is very difficult for some sportsmen to reach the best form after injuries again.
21. Citizens who reached the age of 18 may be elected to the local administration.
22. Some people prefer to spend their leisure time indoors, some go outdoors.
23. In London there are several streets or roads with the same name.
24. The students successfully coped with the task but none of them did it better or quicker than computer.
25. Successful work of a hospital depends upon many factors.
26. The scientist tested the reliability of his new device in a number of successive operations.
27. The readings of the device may vary greatly during one hour.
28. The climate of the Russia varies considerably if you move from the North to the South.
29. It is generally recognized that special subjects have great value for education.
30. The volume of gas is highly dependent on temperature.
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⃰ Упражнение4.
How can an English-English dictionary help you understand and produce spoken and written English?
A) Study the following dictionary extract:
B) Answer the questions:
1) How many meanings does the word medication have? What about medicine?
2) Where is the stress in the word medicine? What about medicinal?
C) Look at the words in ex.4. What order are they in?
Write the following words in the same order.
A. mass waste disc joint stool loose labour
B. productive medicated episode carrier murmur patient
1) How many meanings can you find for each words in A.
Which meaning is most likely in a medical context?
2) Where is the stress in each word in B?
Which meaning is most likely in a medical context?
ACHIVEMENTS IN MEDICINE
These texts are about great achievements in different field of medicine from the last 50 years.
Think about research questions before you read:
1) What were the initial technique used in this area?
2) What was the turning point in this area of medical science?
3) How did the solution change the human life?
IN GENERAL…
LASER SURGERY
Key words: tissue, to focus, precise, cancer, tumour, technique
Until relatively recently, all operations to remove cancer were carried using a scalpel, which is a sharp instrument, a type of knife. The scalpel is used to cut open the skin and tissue surrounding the tumour, and then to remove the tumout itself. In recent years, however, laser surgery has started to replace traditional surgery for removing some types of tumour.
A laser is a light of very high intensity which can be focused in an extremely precise way. Because of its intensity, it can burn whatever it is focused on. This means that it is particularly suited for cancers that occur on the surface of the body or the lining of the internal organs. In contrast to using a scalpel where the surrounding tissue is cut away to get the tumour, a laser can be used through an endoscope. An endoscope is a flexible tube inserted into an opening in the body that is manipulated so that it gets close to the location of the tumour without the need for additional cutting.
Because lasers are more precise, they cause less bleeding and damage to normal tissue than standard surgical tools. As a result, patients tend to bleed less, to have less pain and swelling and there are lower levels of scarring. In addition, operations using a laser are usually shorter than traditional operations and can sometimes be done on an outpatient basis. All these factors mean that there is a much lower risk of infection for the patient.
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However, laser therapy has some limitations. Firstly, surgeons who use this technique must have extra specialized training before they are allowed to use the equipment, and much stricter precautions must be followed. Secondly, the equipment required to carry out the operation is expensive. Thirdly, additional technical assistance may also be required for the maintenance of the equipment. A final limitation is that the surgery may need to be repeated.
IN PARTICULAR…
PEDIATRICS.
SMALLPOX VACCINATION.
Key words: to tramsmit, to appear, initial, development, to discover, eradication, to survive
One of the greatest achievements of the 20th century medicine was the global eradication of smallpox. The disease is one of the most devastating known to mankind.
Smallpox is cause by the variola virus and is most often transmitted by inhaling the virus. It has an incubation period of between 7 to 17 days, after which symptoms begin to appear. The initial symptoms are flu-like. A significant feature of the disease is the development of blisters on the upper part of the body, which eventually scab over and leave scars when the scabs fall off. Around 30 percent of those with smallpox die, usually within two weeks of symptoms appearing.
The first attempts to control the diseases used a technique known as variolation. Dried scab tissue from victims of smallpox as used to deliberately infect young people. Of those infected by variolation, one percent died, but the technique was still used in remote countries until relatively recently.
However, it was the discovery of vaccination by Edward Jenner in 1796 which marked a major step forward in controlling the disease. Vaccination involves the administration of a preparation that allows the body to develop resistance to a disease without having been exposed to it. By infecting children with cowpox, a relatively minor disease, Jenner found they developed immunity to smallpox. By 1853, infants in the UK were required by law to be vaccinated against smallpox, though the vaccines used were not always effective.
Further advances were made in the 1920s with the development of dried vaccines in France and the Netherlands. These were more effective but were difficult to store in hot climates. An outbreak of smallpox in New York City in 18947 led to the development of a freeze-drying technique which meant the vaccine could be stored for months without refrigeration, even in tropical countries.
In 1966, the WHO set a ten-year goal for the eradication of smallpox worldwide. Considerable resources were devoted to the development of mechanisms for reporting and monitoring the disease. Improved technology and better vaccines also helped.
By 1980, the WHO could formally declare smallpox eradicated worldwide. The last naturally occurring case was reported in 1977, in Somalia. The last fatality was in the UK in 1978, following the escape of the virus from a research lab. It was the first time a human infectious disease had been completely eradicated. Smallpox was no longer a killer for the humanity.
Smallpox has a number of unique characteristics which made its eradication possible. Its symptoms developed quickly, making those infected aware of the disease at an early stage and reducing the possibility of them unknowingly transmitting the disease to others. Because it is almost completely specific to humans, there is a very low possibility of smallpox being kept alive in animals to reinfect humans. The availability of effective vaccines was also a necessary factor. Finally, the high level of mortality from the disease made it easier to achieve global agreement on its eradication.
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Although smallpox has ceased to kill, it remains a potential danger to humanity. Though the possibility of the virus surviving in animals is very low, it is still a possibility. So, too, is the accidental release of material traditionally used for variolation in remote communities. However, the most pressing fear is that stocks of the variola virus set aside for research purposes could some day be used as a biological warfare agent. The proposal, in 2003, to inoculate health care staffs in some countries against such a possibility shoes that the potential of smallpox to kill remains as strong as ever.
IN PARTICULAR…
DENTISTRY
Key words: fluoride, to prevent, dental caries, disease, to result from/in
Fluoridation of Drinking Water to Prevent Dental Caries
Fluoridation of community drinking water is a major factor responsible for the decline in dental caries (tooth decay) during the second half of the 20th century. The history of water fluoridation is a classic example of clinical observation leading to epidemiologic investigation and community-based public health intervention. Although other fluoride-containing products are available, water fluoridation remains the most cost-effective method of delivering fluoride to all members of most communities, regardless of age, educational attainment, or income level.
Dental caries is an infectious, communicable, multifactorial disease in which bacteria dissolve the enamel surface of a tooth. Unchecked, the bacteria then may penetrate the underlying dentin and progress into the soft pulp tissue. Dental caries can result in loss of tooth structure and discomfort. Untreated caries can lead to incapacitating pain, a bacterial infection that leads to pulpal necrosis, tooth extraction and loss of dental function, and may progress to an acute systemic infection. The major etiologic factors for this disease are specific bacteria in dental plaque (particularly Streptococcus mutans and lactobacilli) on susceptible tooth surfaces and the availability of fermentable carbohydrates.
At the beginning of the 20th century, extensive dental caries was common in the United States and in most developed countries. No effective measures existed for preventing this disease, and the most frequent treatment was tooth extraction. Failure to meet the minimum standard of having six opposing teeth was a leading cause of rejection from military service in both world wars.
Soon after establishing his dental practice in Colorado Springs, Colorado, in 1901, Dr. Frederick S. McKay noted an unusual permanent stain or "mottled enamel" (termed "Colorado brown stain" by area residents) on the teeth of many of his patients.). After years of personal field investigations, McKay concluded that an agent in the public water supply probably was responsible for mottled enamel. McKay also observed that teeth affected by this condition seemed less susceptible to dental caries.
A newly available method of spectrographic analysis identified high concentrations of fluoride in the water of a deep well was dug in 1909 to provide a local water supply. Fluoride, the ion of the element fluorine, almost universally is found in soil and water but generally in very low concentrations (less than 1.0 ppm). On hearing of the new analytic method, McKay sent water samples to Churchill from areas where mottled enamel was endemic; these samples contained high levels of fluoride (2.0-12.0 ppm).
The hypothesis that dental caries could be prevented by adjusting the fluoride level of community water supplies from negligible levels to 1.0-1.2 ppm was tested in a prospective field study conducted in four pairs of cities (intervention and control) starting in 1945. The prevalence of dental fluorosis in the intervention communities was comparable with what had been observed in cities where drinking water contained natural fluoride at 1.0 ppm. Epidemiologic investigations of patterns of water consumption and caries experience across different climates and geographic regions in the United States led in 1962 to the development of a recommended optimum range of fluoride concentration of 0.7-1.2 ppm, with the lower concentration recommended for warmer climates (where water consumption was higher) and the higher concentration for colder climates.
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The effectiveness of community water fluoridation in preventing dental caries prompted rapid adoption of this public health measure in cities throughout the United States. As a result, dental caries declined precipitously during the second half of the 20th century.
Knowledge about the benefits of water fluoridation led to the development of other modalities for delivery of fluoride, such as toothpastes, gels, mouth rinses, tablets, and drops. Several countries in Europe and Latin America have added fluoride to table salt.
2.3. Псевдопростые слова.
1. То affect
Этот глагол имеет значение «влиять на» что-либо, «воздействовать на» что-либо и вызывает трудности при переводе пассивной конструкции to be affected. Например:
The terms "affect" and "affective" denote the emotional aspect of all mental activity.
Термины "аффект" и "аффективный" выражают эмоциональный аспект ментальной деятельности в целом.
X was affected by Y.
На X повлияло Y.
The results were affected by the presence of impurities.
The rates and molecular weight are affected by lowering the temperature.
2. То appear
Этот глагол имеет три значения:
- появляться
- выступать
- казаться
Очень часто to appear переводят глаголом «оказываться», хотя в словаре такое значение и не приводится.
Например:
предложение «This technique appears to offer the best results», как правило, переводят: «Оказывается, что эта методика даст лучшие результаты».
Такой перевод грубо покажет смысл предложения, так как предположение выдается за совершившийся факт. Надо помнить, что to appear в функции глагола-характеристики переводится словом «кажется» и, следовательно, вышеуказанное предложение означает: «Кажется, эта методика даст наилучшие результаты». Поэтому во избежание ошибок рекомендуется по возможности переводить этот глагол вводным словом «по-видимому».
These correlations appear to hold, also, for many compounds.
По-видимому, данные соотношения справедливы, кроме того, и для многих соединений.
It appears that one and the same monomer may polymerize in a variety of ways.
In principle, the use of special appliances to treat such patients appears to be beneficial.
3. Approach
В словаре приводится три значения этого слова: «приближение», «подступ», «подход». Нередко в научной и технической литературе это слово имеет значение «метод».
The statistical approach is more powerful than the kinetic approach because it gives numerical values which cannot be evaluated by the kinetic method.
Статистический метод более действенный, чем кинетический, так как он дает цифровые значения, которые не могут быть вычислены кинетическим методом.
I like her approach to the problem.
On this approach rates of reactions are not measured.
3. To be available
Хорошо известны два значения этого сочетания “быть доступным” и “иметься в распоряжении”. Нередко эти значения, особенно в отрицательном предложении, не дают точного представления о сути предложения.
Например, из перевода предложения:
The starting compounds were not available - “Исходные соединения были недоступны”,
полагают, что эти соединения были слишком дороги,
а из перевода предложения: This information was not available - “Эти сведения были недоступны”, делают вывод, что сведения были засекречены.
Однако обычно это сочетание означает отсутствие чего-либо по чисто техническим или физическим причинам.
В таких случаях to be available рекомендуется переводить как “иметься”, а
not to be available — “не иметься”, “отсутствовать”.
Прилагательное (not) available соответственно переводится как “имеющийся”, “не имеющийся”, “отсутствующий”.
The usual means of identifying organic compounds by melting points is either not available or far less characteristic in many of these cases. В большинстве случаев обычное средство идентификации органических соединений с помощью точек плавления либо отсутствует, либо значительно менее характерно.
Far more definite data are available on the reactions of these two reagents with the sugars.
Значительно больше определенных данных имеется о реакциях этих двух реагентов с сахарами.
В некоторых случаях to be available имеет значение “быть свободным”,
not to be available — “быть занятым”,
to become available — появиться, освободиться.
4. To cause
Хорошо известно значение этого глагола — «вызывать».
Однако в сочетании с инфинитивом этот глагол имеет значение «заставлять».
Если инфинитив в пассиве, то при переводе его следует ставить в активной форме непосредственно за глаголом to cause.
This causes the components to be separated.
Это заставляет разделяться компоненты.
Electrolytic reduction is also used, but many other reagents cause the nitrogen atom to be split off as ammonia.
Кроме того, применяют электролитическое восстановление, однако многие другие реагенты заставляют отщепляться атом азота в виде аммиака.
5. Characteristic of
Это слово часто воспринимается как существительное, поскольку после него стоит предлог of — один из основных признаков существительных, обозначающий отношения, выражаемые в русском языке родительным падежом. Тем не менее оно нередко является прилагательным.
These reactions are those exhibited by the particular functional group characteristic of that homologous series. Эти реакции являются реакциями данной функциональной группы, характерными для этого гомологического ряда.
6. To develop (сущ.-development)
Основные два значения этого глагола, широко применяемые в научной и технической литературе, — «развивать» и «разрабатывать».
Первое из них обычно применяется тогда, когда речь идет о дальнейшем развитии теории, изобретения, метода.
Второе — в основном когда говорится о первооткрывателе.
It is the radioactive method originally developed by Hahn and his co-workers.
Это радиоактивный метод, первоначально разработанный Ханом и его сотрудниками.
7. Different
Хотя первое значение этого прилагательного в словаре — «другой», его, как правило, переводят значением «различный» (по аналогии со значением существительного difference «разница», «различие»).
Это часто приводит к искажению смысла.
Ведь, в зависимости от контекста, предложение «They went a different way» означает либо «Они пошли различными путями», т. е. разошлись, либо «Они пошли другим путем», т.е. пошли дальше вместе.
Поэтому необходимо знать, что different очень часто имеет значения «другой», «иной».
The correlation of one series with another by the use of optical rotations is a very different matter.
Применение оптического вращения для выявления соотношения, существующего между обоими рядами, представляет совершенно другой вопрос.
The properties of covalent compounds are quite different from those of electrovalent compounds.
Свойства ковалентных соединений совершенно иные, чем свойства электровалентных соединений.
A different procedure was discovered by Gabriel.
Габриэль открыл другой метод.
8. End
Помимо хорошо известного значения «конец», это слово имеет значение «цель», которое употребляется в таких сочетаниях, как
to this end,
with this end in view,
toward this end in view, которые означают «с этой целью».
То this end we investigated several compounds.
С этой целью мы исследовали несколько соединений.
9. То estimate
Следует обратить внимание на те случаи, когда этот глагол переводится конкретными значениями «вычислять», «подсчитать», «определять», а не предлагаемыми словарем «оценивать», «определять глазомером», «подсчитывать приблизительно».
Equation may be used directly to estimate the required difference, which often amounts to twenty or thirty per cent for each degree of ionization.
Уравнение может быть использовано прямо для вычисления требуемой разности, которая часто составляет от 20 до 30% для каждой степени ионизации.
Pauling has estimated the radii of these volumes and they are reproduced in Table 5.
Полинг вычислил радиусы этих объемов, и они представлены в таблице 5.
This fact can be used to estimate the number of amino groups in a compound.
Этот факт можно использовать, чтобы подсчитать число аминогрупп в соединении.
10. Evidence
Хорошо известно значение этого слова — «доказательство». Однако в научной и технической литературе широко распространено и другое значение этого слова: «данные».
Further evidence concerning this electrode reaction will be presented in the next chapter.
Дальнейшие данные относительно этой электродной реакции будут представлены в следующей главе.
11. Experience
Найдя в словаре значение этого слова «опыт», обычно не обращают внимания на то, что в скобках дается уточнение «жизненный» и поэтому, как правило, считают, что оно эквивалентно слову «эксперимент».
Фактически experience означает «накопленный практический опыт», или, проще, «практика».
The preparation and conditioning of membranes are very much a matter of experience.
Изготовление и доводка мембран в значительной степени является вопросом практического опыта.
12. То fail
Этот глагол требует особого подхода в каждом конкретном случае. Однако для перевода научной и технической литературы сочетание to fail с инфинитивом можно рекомендовать переводить отрицательной частицей «не» к глаголу.
X-ray pattern failed to affirm this suggestion.
Рентгенограмма не подтвердила это предположение.
13. То follow
Из многих значений этого глагола основными являются:
1) «следовать за (чем-либо)»,
2) «протекать», «применять», «подчиняться», «давать» и 3) «прослеживать», «контролировать».
One of the procedures described in Part I has been followed here.
Здесь была применена одна из методик, описанных в Первой части.
Then followed the discovery of a new compound.
Затем последовало открытие нового соединения.
14. То involve, involving
Обычно to involve принято переводить словом «включать». Это слово не отражает широкого значения английского глагола, который в каждом отдельном случае требует особого перевода. «Включать» подразумевает частичное участие, тогда как в большинстве случаев этот глагол указывает, что данное явление охватывает весь процесс, или что весь процесс проходит через определенную стадию.
Приведем несколько примеров с глаголом to involve в значении «быть связанным с», «быть сопряженным с», «участвовать», «охватывать», «представлять собой», «происходить».
The magnitudes for all of these quantities, except the last, involve the question of standard states.
Величины для каждого из этих количеств, за исключением последнего, связаны с вопросом стандартных состояний.
The design of reliable apparatus for this purpose involves a fair number of difficulties.
Конструирование надежной аппаратуры для этой цели сопряжено с довольно большими трудностями.
15. То make
Хорошо известно значение этого глагола «делать». Однако в сочетании с последующим инфинитивом (обычно без частицы to) этот глагол имеет значение «заставлять».
В таких случаях инфинитив без частицы to нередко ошибочно воспринимается как существительное.
Например, предложение
«Не made this reaction run at reduced pressures» означает: «Он заставил протекать эту реакцию при низких давлениях», а не: «Он провел этот реакционный опыт при низких давлениях»
16. То mean
Из значений этого глагола, данных в словаре, для научной и технической литературы характерны только «значить», «предназначать(ся) для» и «иметь в виду».
Кроме того, можно рекомендовать следующие значения: «означать», «полагать», «думать».
Последние два выступают в функции глагола-характеристики при подлежащем, выраженном одушевленным лицом.
We meant that we could obtain different results.
Мы думали, что сможем получить другие результаты.
We meant the reaction to proceed slowly.
Мы думали, что реакция будет протекать медленно.
17. То need
В научной и технической литературе этот глагол обычно встречается в значении «требоваться».
Глагол to need перед инфинитивом без частицы to рекомендуется переводить значениями «должен», «следует», «обязательно».
The impurities need not exceed 5 per cent.
Примеси не должны превышать 5%.
Only recent data need be taken into account.
Следует учитывать только последние данные.
These processes need not be considered.
Эти процессы рассматривать не обязательно.
18. Number
Это существительное переводится по-разному, в зависимости от стоящего перед ним артикля.
The number — «число»; а number «ряд».
The number of scientists partaking in the conference.
Число ученых, участвующих в конференции.
A number of scientists have confirmed this suggestion.
Ряд ученых подтвердили это предположение.
Однако, если между неопределенным артиклем и number стоит прилагательное, то number переводится как «число».
A great number of scientists.
Большое число ученых.
19. Procedure
Для научной и технической литературы наиболее распространенным значением этого слова является «методика», «метод»; «процесс», «пропись».
Значение «процедура» встречается при переводе статей гуманитарного или медицинского характера.
A discussion of the experimental procedures for this type of experimental system has been given elsewhere.
В другой работе было дано обсуждение методики опытов для экспериментальной системы этого типа.
They suggested a new procedure to obtain these valuable compounds.
Они предложили новую методику для получения этих ценных соединений.
20. То take
Этот глагол имеет много значений, но в научной и технической литературе наиболее распространены следующие:
1) «Принимать».
The molecules took the following configuration.
Молекулы приняли следующую конфигурацию.
2) «Считать», «полагать», «принимать».
We take the heat of formation to refer to formation from atoms in arbitrary energy states.
Мы принимаем, что теплота образования это теплота, образующаяся из атомов в произвольных энергетических состояниях.
3) «Требоваться», «затрачивать» (при указании на время).
It took them over 5 hours to carry the reaction to completion.
Они затратили свыше пяти часов, чтобы довести реакцию до завершения.
4) «Определять», «снимать», «получать» ( рентгенограммы, спектры и т. п.). They took the X-ray patterns of these compounds.
Они получили (сняли) рентгенограммы этих соединений.
21. Technique
В разделах, посвященных описанию научного эксперимента, это слово большей частью означает «методика», «метод», реже — «аппаратура», а не «техника».
The ordinary techniques of manipulating organic compounds.
Обыкновенные методы работы с органическими соединениями.
22. То undergo
То undergo обычно переводят значением «подвергаться». Правильнее будет переводить этот глагол «претерпевать», так как обычно упор делается на то, что происходит с веществом.
Предложение
«The reaction products undergo decomposition» следует перевести как: «Продукты реакции претерпевают разложение».
Такой перевод показывает, что продукты реакции сами разлагаются, а не подвергаются разложению.
23. То be useful
Основное значение to be useful — «быть полезным».
Однако при указании на практическое применение отдельных веществ to be useful иногда целесообразно переводить значением «применяться», «использоваться».
The Fridel-Crafts type of reaction has been useful during the past three-quarters of a century.
Реакции типа Фриделя-Крафтca применяются последние три четверти века.
1.
Проанализируйте употребление «псевдопростых слов» в данных предложениях.
1.The device failed unexpectedly.
2. We failed to arrive in time.
3. He couldn’t account for his foolish mistake.
4. I cannot account for his behavior.
5. You must take into account the boy’s long illness.
6. I refuse to deal with him.
7. He is easy to deal with.
8. He caused the letter to be sent.
9. He caused me to go.
10. I can’t make you come if you refuse.
11. I referred to the document quoted to Vol. 6, page 113.
12. Whom are you referring to?
13. Digital video disc player hereinafter referred to as unit is a complicated digital device.
14. Heavy rains resulted in flood.
15.The talks have resulted in a lessening of tension.
16.Nothing has resulted from my effort.
17. I am provided with everything I need.
2.
Составьте словосочетания:
| Complain off- out of present put worn | With of out on colour sorts |
3.
Проанализируйте употребление глагола to present и его производных.
Дополните предложения подходящими по смыслу производными.
1. A 67-year old man __________with a 9-month history of increasing shortness of breath.
2. The most common______________________is loss of consciousness.
3. Cranial arteritis may __________as fever without any obvious causes.
4. The patient usually _____________________with a severe sore throat.
5. The____ symptoms in this patient could perhaps be due to renal failure.
6. Other conditions with a similar ___________include acute cholecystitis.
7. Reduced growth is an important _________complaint of coeliac disease.
8. Two months following________________, the patient was able to walk.
4.
Вычлените группы синонимов.
Образуйте существительные от глаголов.
| 1. advise assess check detect examine explain help manage minimize refer renew support | 2. verify outline update reduce evaluate find transfer look at sympathize assist recommend control |
⃰ 5.
Look at the article.
1. Find synonyms for the words and phrases in bold. Use a dictionary if necessary.
2. Rewrite each sentence to make paraphrases of the text. Use:
-synonyms you have found yourself
- synonyms from the box:
| Ailment allergy analgesic clinic concern fatigue illness injection nausea pain pill vaccination |
- the nouns you made in ex 2.
- passives where possible
Example:
A major preventive role of primary care is to help patients avoid disease or disability.
---Primary care has a major role in assisting patients to avoid illness or disability.
The role of primary care.
A. Preventive medicine.
A major preventive role of primary care is to help patients avoid disease or disability. It is, perhaps, even more crucia l than its other role, providing treatment for patients who suffer from these conditions already. An important aspect of this is the vaccination services that the clinics provide.
B. Support for acute care.
The support role of primary care is to detect disease at an early stage and to refer patients to acute care for further tests and treatments. This means that the damage caused by a disease can be minimized. It can also help with monitoring the progress of post-operative healing, so complications can be identified quickly.
⃰ 6.
A. Look at the conditions in the box.
| Diabetes mellitus breast cancer heart attack migraine stomach ulcer stroke angina pectoris |
1. Which are best managed in primary care and which will need to be refered to acute care?
2. Which conditions could primary care help prevent?
3. Which conditions are suitable for follow-up in primary care?
B.Look at the four essay types.
| There are four main essay types in medical studies: -descriptive - comparison - analytical - argument |
1. What should the writer do in each type?
2. Match each essay type with one of the questions below? (A-D)
| A. What re the advantages and disadvantages of screening for diseases in primary care? B. “Disease prevention is far better than providing cures”. To what extent do you agree with the statement? C. Explain why targeting three key behaviours is so important for the developed world. D. What aspects of prevention need to be considered by GP’s? Describe what is involved in each. |
3. What topics should be covered in each essay question?
C. Read the title of the text below and the first sentence of each paragraph.
1. What will the text be about?
2. Choose one of the essay questions mentioned above. Write four research questions which will help you to find information for your essay.
D. Read the text.
1. Using your own words, make notes from the text on information for your essay questions.
IN GENERAL…
CARING FOR OUR HEALTH
the role of primary care in disease prevention
at the heart of primary care is the concept of preventive medicine, the belief that diseases or disability should be avoided rather than treated. How to put this into practice is something which has to be considered by all general practitioners (GP’s). On a purely economic basis, the benefits associated with preventive medicine are considerable. Firstly, resources for treatment are not required. In addition, the individual can continue working and contributing to the economy.
Unfortunately, not all conditions can be prevented. Examples, including infectious diseases such as salmonella, which can be acquired from contaminated food. However, conditions such as type 2 diabetes can be largely prevented. With a rapidly ageing population in many developing countries, it is important that prevention should have a high priority in primary care.
Three different aspects of prevention need to be taken into account by GP’s when considering the services they deliver. Firstly, primary prevention is the promotion of health and the prevention of illness, which involves vaccination programmes and efforts to ensure that a safe environment is provided for individuals. Lifestyle modification (providing advice and encouragement to patients on how to change to healthier behaviours) is a tool to change this at an individual level. Smoking cessation clinics are a good example of this. At a community level, awareness campaigns can be used to heighten awareness, for example putting up healthy eating posters. Secondary prevention is concerned with the early identification of disease and the provision of prompt treatment to minimize its damage. This can include running screening programmes, where tests for specific conditions are carried out on a regular basis.
Tertiary prevention is about reducing the effects of disease and disability on the patient, which can involve minimizing the patient’s suffering using appropriate analgesia (pain relief) or promoting self-management of a condition by the patients themselves. A good example of this is with patients who have diabetes.
GPs can also use screening programmes, in which tests are carries out for a specific condition at regular intervals. Screening can deliver considerable benefits in minimizing the effects of disease. When used with profiling, that is, identifying patient likely to develop specific conditions using data from patient records, it can be very cost-effective. Early diagnosis, when conditions or diseases are identified at an early stage, can mean that diseases are easier to treat and can be completely cured in some cases. Diseases screened for include cervical cancer, breast cancer and heart conditions.
However, screening is not suitable for all diseases. Some tests can have high levels of false positives – results falsely indicating the presence of disease.
Further testing may be required for confirmation, which can be upsetting for patients. Tests can also be expensive. Care needs to be taken in deciding whether to set up screening programmes for a specific disease.
In the developed world, targeting three disease-linked behaviours could provide huge benefits in human and financial terms. The first of these is tobacco smoking, causing death through lung cancer and vascular disease as well as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. It is estimated that around 100 million deaths were directly attributable to tobacco smoking in the 20th century and that by 2030 this will increase by another billion. Eating too many fatty and sugary foods and not exercising is one of the main causes of diabetes. According to the WHO, diabetes is likely to be one of the most substantial threats to human health in the 21th century, with a projected financial cost of $192 billion by 2020 for the United States alone. If diagnosed early, it can be managed relatively easily.
The final behavior is a reduction in alcohol abuse. Studies show that the misuse of alcohol can be responsible for up to 5% of hospital admissions and can impact significantly on heart disease, diabetes and liver failure. The medical profession has been aware for a long time that population health is improved by prevention. With a rapidly aging population, it is important that a similar conclusion is reached by government in the developed world.
7.
Изучите текст и данные, представленные в таблице.
Выделите ключевые слова в каждом пункте (A, B, C).
A.Screening and Immunization.
Screening is a way of identifying people at increased or greater risk for a condition, although they do not yet have any signs and symptoms. In some cases, mass screening –screening large numbers of people – is appropriate, for example in the past for tuberculosis. In other cases, only those with high risk factors, like a family history of conditions as cancer and diabetes, are screened. However, there are a number of problems with screening. There are always false negatives, cases where a patient has a disease but screening does not identify it. There are also false positives, where someone is told they have a disease when in fact they do not. Furthermore, with some diseases, early identification is of no benefit to the patient as there is no treatment available.
B.Common screening tests.
| Condition | Test | Subjects | Frequency |
| Neural tube defects and Down’s Syndrome risk | AFP (alphafetoprotein) | Pregnant women | Between 16 and 17 weeks |
| Breast cancer | Mammography | Women, 50-70 | Every 3 years |
| Cervical cancer | Smear test | Women, 20-60 | Every 3 years |
| Cardiovascular disease | Blood cholesterol | ˃40 with high risk factors | Every year |
| Secondary prevention | |||
| Cholesterol ˃4 | Blood cholesterol | Patients with heart disease | Every 6 months |
| Diabetic retinopathy | ophthalmoscopy | Patients with diabetes | Every year |
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