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Is there an End to the Computer Race?




Игнатьева Н.В.,

Крюкова С.В.

УЧЕБНОЕ ПОСОБИЕ ПО АНГЛИЙСКОМУ ЯЗЫКУ

ДЛЯ СТУДЕНТОВ ДНЕВНОГО ОТДЕЛЕНИЯ, ОБУЧАЮЩИХСЯ ПО СПЕЦИАЛЬНОСТИ “ИНФОРМАЦИОННЫЕ ТЕХНОЛОГИИ”

РГГМУ

Санкт- Петербург

Министерство образования Российской Федерации

 

Федеральное государственное бюджетное

образовательное учреждение

высшего профессионального образования

Российский Государственный Гидрометеорологический Университет

 

Игнатьева Н.В.

Крюкова С.В.

УЧЕБНОЕ ПОСОБИЕ ПО АНГЛИЙСКОМУ ЯЗЫКУ

ДЛЯ СТУДЕНТОВ ДНЕВНОГО ОТДЕЛЕНИЯ, ОБУЧАЮЩИХСЯ ПО СПЕЦИАЛЬНОСТИ “ИНФОРМАЦИОННЫЕ ТЕХНОЛОГИИ”

РГГМУ

Санкт-Петербург

 

 

УДК 551.802.0

 

Игнатьева Н.В., Крюкова С.В. Учебное пособие по английскому языку

для студентов дневного отделения, обучающихся по специальности “информационные технологии” – СПб.: изд. РГГМУ, 2013, стр.46

 

ISBN 978-5-86813-306-0

 

 

Предисловие

Данное учебное пособие предназначено для студентов отделения информационных технологий, изучающих английский язык. Цель учебного пособия - развитие у студентов навыков чтения и перевода научно-технической литературы на английском языке в сфере информационных технологий.

Пособие состоит из двух разделов. Вводный курс знакомит студентов с базовыми понятиями в области информационных технологий. Основной курс включает себя тематические блоки, более подробно рассматривающие каждую конкретную сферу.

Данное пособие может использоваться для аудиторной и самостоятельной работы студентами отделения информационных технологий. В качестве материала для заданий были использованы аутентичные источники (книги, статьи, справочная литература, Интернет-ресурсы) по информационным технологиям.

 

 

INTRODUCTION

The handbook is written for students of Information Technology department who study English at Hydrometeorological University. The purpose is to develop skills of reading and rendering IT texts into Russian.

The handbook comprises two main parts. The first part represents a set of texts comprising some basic IT concepts. The second part consists of topic sections to go deeper in each particular area.

The teaching materials are built on the authentic books, articles and reference sources. This handbook can be used by IT students as basic or additional material.

 

Вводный курс

Текст 1.

The digital age

We are now living in what some people call the digital age, meaning that computers have become an essential part of our lives. Young people who have grown up with PCs and mobile phones are often called the digital generation. Computers help students to perform mathematical operations and improve their maths skills. They are used to access the Internet, to do basic research and to communicate with other students around the world. Teachers use projectors and interactive whiteboards to give presentations and teach sciences, history or language courses. PCs are also used for administrative purposes - schools use word processors to write letters, and databases to keep records of students and teachers. A school website allows teachers to publish exercises for students to complete online. Students can also enroll for courses via the website and parents can download official reports.

Mobiles let you make voice calls, send texts, e-mail people and download logos, ringtones or games. With a built-in camera you can send pictures and make video calls in face-to-face mode. New smartphones combine a telephone with web access, video, a games console, an MP3 player, a personal digital assistant (PDA) and a GPS navigation system, all in one.

In banks, computers store information about the money held by each customer and enable staff to access large databases and to carry out financial transactions at high speed. They also control the cashpoints, or ATMs (automatic teller machines), which dispense money to customers by the use of a PIN-protected card. People use a Chip and PIN card to pay for goods and services. Instead of using a signature to verify payments, customers are asked to enter a four-digit personal identification number (PIN), the same number used at cashpoints; this system makes transactions more secure. With online banking, clients can easily pay bills and transfer money from the comfort of their homes.

Airline pilots use computers to help them control the plane. For example, monitors display data about fuel consumption and weather conditions. In airport control towers, computers are used to manage radar systems and regulate air traffic. On the ground, airlines are connected to travel agencies by computer. Travel agents use computers to find out about the availability of flights, prices, times, stopovers and many other details.

 

1) What do the terms “digital age” and “digital generation” mean?

2) How are computers used in education/bank system/everyday life?

3) Could you name the examples of applying the computer technologies in other spheres?

 

1. Определите, какой частью речи являются следующие слова (существительным, глаголом, прилагательным, наречием):

 

perform, word processor, online, download, built-in, digital, store, financial, monitor, data.

 

Подберите определение для каждого слова

 

a) keep, save

b) execute, do

с) monetary

d) screen

e) integrated

f) connected to the Internet

g) collection of facts or figures

h) describes information that is recorded or broadcast using computers

i) program used for text manipulation

j) copy files from a server to your PC or mobile

 

2. Переведите словосочетания на русский язык

perform operations, access the Internet, do research, make calls, send texts, display data, write letters, store information, complete exercises, carry out transactions.

 

3. Составьте словосочетания и переведите их на русский язык

 

give money
keep a PIN
access databases
enter presentations
transfer records

 

4. Используя словосочетания из упражнений 2 и 3, заполните пропуски в предложениях. Переведите полученные предложения на русский язык.

1) Thanks to Wi-Fi, it's now easy to............................................from cafes, hotels, parks and many other public places.

2) Online banking lets you..................................................................between your accounts easily and securely.

3) Skype is a technology that enables users to...............................................over the Internet for free.

4) In many universities, students are encouraged to...............................using PowerPoint in order to make their talks more visually attractive.

5) The Web has revolutionized the way people.........................................- with sites such as Google and Wikipedia, you can find the information you need in seconds.

6) Cookies allow a website to.................................................on a user's machine and later retrieve it; when you visit the website again, it remembers your preferences.

7) With the latest mobile phones, you can..................................................with multimedia attachments - pictures, audio, even video.

 

 

Текст 2.

What is a computer?

A computer is an electronic machine which can accept data in a certain form, process the data, and give the results of the processing in a specified format as information. First, data is fed into the computer's memory. Then, when the program is run, the computer performs a set of instructions and processes the data. Finally, we can see the results (the output) on the screen or in printed form. A computer system consists of two parts: hardware and software. Hardware is any electronic or mechanical part you can see or touch. Software is a set of instructions, called a program, which tells the computer what to do. There are three basic hardware sections: the central processing unit (CPU), main memory and peripherals. Perhaps the most influential component is the central processing unit. Its function is to execute program instructions and coordinate the activities of all the other units. In a way, it is the 'brain' of the computer. The main memory (a collection of RAM chips) holds the instructions and data which are being processed by the CPU. Peripherals are the physical units attached to the computer. They include storage devices and input/ output devices.

Storage devices (hard drives, DVD drives or flash drives) provide a permanent storage of both data and programs Disk drives are used to read and write data on disks. Input devices enable data to go into the computer's memory. The most common input devices are the mouse and the keyboard. Output devices enable us to extract the finished product from the system. For example, the computer shows the output on the monitor or prints the results onto paper by means of a printer.

On the rear panel of the computer there are several ports into which we can plug a wide range of peripherals - a modem, a digital camera, a scanner, etc. They allow communication between the computer and the devices. Modern desktop PCs have USB ports and memory card readers on the front panel.

 

1. Найдите определение для каждого термина

 

1. software 2. peripherals 3. main memory 4. hard drive (also known as hard disk) computer system 5. hardware 6. input 7. ports 8. output 9. central processing unit (CPU) a) the brain of the computer b) physical parts that make up a computer system с) programs which can be used on a particular d) the information which is presented to the computer e) results produced by a computer f) input devices attached to the CPU g) section that holds programs and data while they are executed or pressed h) magnetic device used to store information i) sockets into which an external device may be connected  

 

2. Перед вами названия основных типов компьютеров. Найдите аналоги их названию в русском языке.

 

Laptop, desktop PC, PDA, mainframe, tablet PC

 

Являются ли следующие утверждения верными?

 

1. A mainframe computer is less powerful than a PC.

2. A mainframe is used by large organizations that need to process enormous amounts of data.

3. The most suitable computers for home use are desktop PCs.

4. A laptop is not portable.

5. Laptops are not as powerful as desktop PCs.

6. Using a stylus, you can write directly onto the screen of a tablet PC.

7. A Personal Digital Assistant is small enough to fit into the palm of your hand.

8. A PDA does not allow you to surf the Web.

 

3. Для проведения классификаций в английском языке используются следующие словосочетания:

•... are classified into X types/categories

•... are classified by...

•... can be divided into X types/categories

Digital computers can be divided into five main types: mainframes, desktop PCs, laptops, tablet PCs and handheld PDAs.

•... include(s)...

•... consist(s) of...

The basic configuration of a mainframe consists of a central system which processes immense amounts of data very quickly.

• There are X types/classes of...

• X is a type of...

A tablet PC is a type of notebook computer.

 

Используя данные выше словосочетания, заполните пропуски в предложениях. Предложения переведите на русский язык.

1. A computer............................................ hardware and software.

2. Peripherals................................. three types: input, output and storage devices.

3. A word processing program................................................software which lets the user create and edit text.

4. ….........................................of network architectute: peer-to-peer, where all computers have the same capabilities, and client-server (e.g. the Internet), where servers store and distribute data, and clients access this data.

 

 

Текст 3.

How screen displays work

Displays, often called monitors or screens, are the most-used output device on a computer. They provide instant feedback by showing you text and graphic images as you work or play.

Most desktop displays use Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) or Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) technology, while nearly all portable computing devices, such as laptops, incorporate LCDs. Because of their slimmer design and lower energy consumption, LCD monitors (also called flat panel or flat screen displays) are replacing CRTs.

Basic features

Resolution refers to the number of dots of colour, known as pixels (picture elements), contained in a display. It is expressed by identifying the number of pixels on the horizontal and vertical axes. A typical resolution is 1024x768.

A pixel is a combination of red, green and blue subpixels.

Two measurements describe the size of your display: the aspect ratio and the screen size. Historically, computer displays, like most televisions, have had an aspect ratio of 4:3 - the width of the screen to the height is four to three. For widescreen LCD displays, the aspect ratio is 16:9, very useful for viewing DVD movies, playing games and displaying multiple windows side by side. High-definition TV also uses this format. The viewable screen size is measured diagonally, so a 19"screen measures 19" from the top left to the bottom right.

Inside the computer there is a video adapter, or graphics card, which processes images and sends signals to the monitor. CRT monitors use a VGA (video graphics adapter) cable, which converts digital signals into analogue signals. LCD monitors use a DVI (digital video interface) connection.

Colour depth refers to the number of colours a monitor can display. This depends on the number of bits used to describe the colour of a single pixel. For example, an old VGA monitor with an 8-bit depth can generate 256 colours and a SuperVGA with a 24-bit depth can generate 16.7 million colours. Monitors with a 32-bit depth are used in digital video, animation and video games to get certain effects.

Display technologies

An LCD is made of two glass plates with a liquid crystal material between them. The crystals block the light in different quantities to create the image. Active-matrix LCDs use TFT (thin film transistor) technology, in which each pixel has its own switch. The amount of light the LCD monitor produces is called brightness or luminance, measured in cd/m2(candela per square metre).

A CRT monitor is similar to a traditional TV set. It contains millions of tiny red, green and blue phosphor dots that glow when struck by an electron beam that travels across the screen and create a visible image.

PCs can be connected to video projectors, which project the image onto a large screen. They are used for presentations and home theatre applications.

In a plasma screen, images are created by a plasma discharge which contains noble (non-harmful) gases. Plasma TVs allow for larger screens and wide viewing angles, making them ideal for movies.

Organic Light-Emitting Diodes (OLEDs) are thin-film LED displays that don't require a backlight to function. The material emits light when stimulated by an electrical current, which is known as electroluminescence.They consume less energy, produce brighter colours and are flexible - i.e. they can be bent and rolled up when they're not being used.

 

1. Переведите следующие термины: resolution, pixel, aspect ratio, colour depth, video adapter, plasma screen

 

Найдите определение для каждого термина

 

1. the smallest unit on a display screen or bitmapped image (usually a coloured dot)

2. an expansion card that generates the video signal sent to a computer display

3. the width of the screen in proportion to its height

4. also called gas discharge display

5. the number of pixels contained in a display, horizontally and vertically

6. the number of bits used to hold a colour pixel; this determines the maximum number of colours that can be displayed

 

2. Ответьте на вопросы

1. What do CRT and LCD stand for?

2. How is the screen size measured?

3. What technology is used by active-matrix LCDs?

4. Which unit of frequency is used to measure the brightness of a display?

5. What substance produces light and colour when hit by electrons in a CRT monitor?

6. What are the three advantages of OLED displays?

 

Текст 4.

Databases

A database is a collection of related data, and the software used in databases to store, organize and retrieve the data is called the database management system, or DBMS. However, we often use the word database to cover both meanings. A database can manage any type of data, including text, numbers, images, sound, video and hyperlinks (links to websites).

Information is entered into the database via fields. Each field holds a separate piece of information, and the fields are grouped together in records. Therefore, a record about an employee might consist of several fields which give their name, address, phone number, date of birth, salary and length of employment with the company.

Records are grouped together into files which hold large amounts of information. Files can easily be updated -you can always change fields, add new records or delete old ones. An electronic database is much faster to consult and update than a card index system and occupies a lot less space. With the right software, you can keep track of stock, sales, market trends, orders and other information that can help your company stay successful.

A database program lets you create an index - a list of records ordered according to the content of certain fields. This helps you to search the database and sort records into numerical or alphabetical order very quickly. Modern databases are relational - that is, they are made up of related files: customers and orders, vendors and purchases, students and tutors, etc. Two database files can be related as long as they have a common field. A file of students, for example, could include a field called Tutor ID and another file with details of the tutors could include the same field. This key field can be used to relate the two files. Databases like Oracle, DB2 and MySQL can manage these relationships.

A database query function allows you to extract information according to certain conditions or criteria. For example, if a managing director wanted to know all the customers that spend more than?8,000 per month, the program would search on the name field and the money field simultaneously.

The best database packages also include network facilities, which can make businesses more productive. For example, managers of different departments can have direct access to a common database. Most aspects of the program can be protected by user-defined passwords and other security devices. For example, if you wanted to share an employee's personal details but not their commission, you could protect the commission field.

 

 

Текст 5.

Computer languages

Unfortunately for us, computers can't understand spoken English or any other natural language. The only language they can understand directly is machine code, which consists of 1 and 0 (binary code).

Machine code is too difficult to write. For this reason, we use symbolic languages to communicate instructions to the computer. For example, assembly languages use abbreviations such as ADD, SUB, MPY to represent instructions. The program is then translated into machine code by a piece of software called an assembler. Machine code and assembly languages are called low-level languages because they are closer to the hardware. They are quite complex and restricted to particular machines. To make the programs easier to write, and to overcome the problem of intercommunication between different types of computer, software developers designed high-level languages, which are closer to the English language. Here are some examples:

■ FORTRAN was developed by IBM in 1954 and is still used for scientific and engineering applications.

■ COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language) was developed in 1959 and is mainly used for business applications.

■ BASIC was developed in the 1960s and was widely used in microcomputer programming because it was easy to learn. Visual BASIC is a modern version of the old BASIC language, used to build graphical elements such as buttons and windows in Windows programs.

■ PASCAL was created in 1971. It is used in universities to teach the fundamentals of programming.

С was developed in the 1980s at AT&T. It is used to write system software, graphics and commercial applications. С++ is a version of С which incorporates object-oriented programming: the programmer concentrates on particular things (a piece of text, a graphic or a table, etc.) and gives each object functions which can be altered without changing the entire program. For example, to add a new graphics format, the programmer needs to rework just the graphics object. This makes programs easier to modify.

■ Java was designed by Sun in 1995 to run on the Web

Java applets provide animation and interactive features on web pages.

Programs written in high-level languages must be translated into machine code by a compiler or an interpreter. A compiler translates the source code into object code - that is, it converts the entire program into machine code in one go. On the other hand, an interpreter translates the source code line by line as the program is running.

It is important not to confuse programming languages with markup languages, used to create web documents. Markup languages use instructions, known as markup tags, to format and link text files. Some examples include:

■ HTML, which allows us to describe how information will be displayed on web pages.

■ XML, which stands for Extensible Markup Language. While HTML uses pre-defined tags, XML enables us to define our own tags; it is not limited by a fixed set of tags.

■ VoiceXML, which makes Web content accessible via voice and phone. VoiceXML is used to create voice applications that run on the phone, whereas HTML is used to create visual applications (for example, web pages).

<xml>

< name> Andrea Finch </name>

< homework> Write a paragraph describing the С language </homework>

</xml>

In this XML example we have created two new tags: <name> and <homework>

Текст 6.

E-mail Protocols

Although the format of a mail message, as transmitted from one machine to another, is rigidly defined, different mail protocols transfer and store messages in slightly different ways. The mail system you're probably used to employs a combination of SMTP and P0P3 to send and receive mail respectively. Others may use IMAP4 to retrieve mail, especially where bandwidth is limited or expensive.

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

SMTP is used to transfer messages between one mail server and another. It's also used by e-mail programs on PCs to send mail to the server. SMTP is very straightforward, providing only facilities to deliver messages to one or more recipients in batch mode. Once a message has been delivered, it can't be recalled or cancelled. It's also deleted from the sending server once it's been delivered. SMTP uses 'push' operation, meaning that the connection is initiated by the sending server rather than the receiver. This makes it unsuitable for delivering messages to desktop PCs, which aren't guaranteed to be switched on at all times. In host-based mail systems, such as Unix and Web mail, SMTP is the only protocol the server uses. Received messages are stored locally and retrieved.

In case of Web mail, the message is then translated into HTML and transmitted to your browser. SMTP is the only protocol for transferring messages between servers. How they're then stored varies from system to system.

 

Post Office Protocol

POP is a message-retrieval protocol used by many PC mail clients to get messages from a server, typically your ISP's mail server. It only allows you to download all messages in your mailbox at once. It works in 'pull' mode, the receiving PC initiates the connection. PC-based POP3 mail clients can do this automatically at a preset interval. When you use your Web mail account to access a POP3 mailbox, the mail server opens a connection to the P0P3 server just as a PC-based application would. The messages are then copied into your Web mailbox and read via a browser.

Since POP3 downloads all the messages in your mailbox, there's an option to leave messages on the server, so that they can be picked up from different machines without losing any. This does so mean that you'll get every message downloaded every time you connect to the server. If you don't clean out your mailbox regularly, this could mean long downloads. When using a Web mail account, be careful about leaving 55 messages on the server - if too many build up, each download will take a long time and fill up your inbox. Many Web mail systems won't recognize messages you've already downloaded, so you'll get duplicates of ones you haven't deleted.

Internet Mail Access Protocol

MAP is similar in operation to POP, but allows you more choice over what messages you download. Initially, only message headers are retrieved, giving information about the sender and subject. You can then download just those messages you want to read. You can also delete individual messages from the server, and some MAP servers let you organize your mail into folders. This makes download times shorter and there's no danger of losing messages.

Текст 7.

The Anatomy Of A Virus

A biological virus is a very small, simple organism that infects living cells, known as the host, by attaching itself to them and using them to reproduce itself. This often causes harm to the host cells.

Similarly, a computer virus is a very small program routine that infects a computer system and uses its resources to reproduce itself. It often does this by patching the operating system to enable it to detect program files, such as COM or EXE files. It then copies itself into those files. This sometimes causes harm to the host computer system.

When the user runs an infected program, it is loaded into memory carrying the virus. The virus uses a common programming technique to stay resident in memory. It can then use a reproduction routine to infect other programs. This process continues until the computer is switched off.

The virus may also contain a payload that remains dormant until a trigger event activates it, such as the user pressing a particular key. The payload can have a variety of forms. It might do something relatively harmless such as displaying a message on the monitor screen or it might do something more destructive such as deleting files on the hard disk.

When it infects a file, the virus replaces the first instruction in the host program with a command that changes the normal execution sequence. This type of command is known as a JUMP command and causes the virus instructions to be executed before the host program. The virus then returns control to the host program which then continues with its normal sequence of instructions and is executed in the normal way.

To be a virus, a program only needs to have a reproduction routine that enables it to infect other programs. Viruses can, however, have four main parts. A misdirection routine that enables it to hide itself; a reproduction routine that allows it to copy itself to other programs; a trigger that causes the payload to be activated at a particular time or when a particular event takes place; and a payload that may be a fairly harmless joke or may be very destructive. A program that has a payload but does not have a reproduction routine is known as a Trojan.

 

 

Текст 8.

Safe Data Transfer

Secure transactions across the Internet have three goals. First, the two parties engaging transaction (say, an e-mail or a business purchase) don't want a third party to be able to read their transmission. Some form of data encryption is necessary to prevent this. Second, the receiver of the message should be able to detect whether someone has tampered with it in transit. This calls for a message-integrity scheme. Finally, both parties must know that they're communicating with each other, not an impostor. This is done with user authentication.

Today's data encryption methods rely on a technique called public-key cryptography. Everyone using a public-key system has a public key and a private key. Messages are encrypted and decrypted with these keys. A message encrypted with your public key can only be decrypted by a system that knows your private key.

For the system to work, two parties engaging in a secure transaction must know each other's public keys. Private keys, however, are closely guarded secrets known only to their owners. When I want to send you an encrypted message fuse your public key to turn my message into gibberish. I know that only you can turn the gibberish back into the original message, because only you know your private key. Public- key cryptography also works in reverse - that is, only your public key can decipher your private key's encryption.

To make a message tamper-proof (providing message integrity), the sender runs each message through a message-digest function. This function within an application produces a number called a message-authentication code (MAC). The system works because it's almost impossible for an altered message to have the same MAC as another message. Also, you can't take a MAC and turn it back into the original message.

The software being used for a given exchange produces a MAC for a message before it's encrypted. Next, it encrypts the MAC with the sender's private key. It then encrypts both the message and the encrypted MAC with the recipient's public key and sends the message.

When the recipient gets the message and so decrypts it, they also get an encrypted MAC. The software takes the message and runs it through the same message-digest function that the sender used and creates its own MAC. Then it decrypts the sender's MAC. If the two are the same, then the message hasn't been tampered with.

The dynamics of the Web dictate that a user-authentication system must exist. This can be done using digital certificates.

A server authenticates itself to a client by sending an unencrypted ASCII-based digital certificate. A digital certificate contains information about the company operating the server, including the server's public key. The digital certificate is 'signed' by a trusted digital-certificate issuer, which means that the issuer has investigated the company operating the server and believes it to be legitimate. If the client trusts the issuer, then it can trust the server. The issuer 'signs' the certificate by generating a MAC for it, then encrypts the MAC with the issuer's private key. If the client trusts the issuer, then it already knows the issuer's public key.

The dynamics and standards of secure transactions will change, but the three basic tenets of secure transactions will remain the same. If you understand the basics, then you're already three steps ahead of everyone else.

 

Текст 9.

Is there an End to the Computer Race?

Today the word «electronics» is in general usage. Millions of people have electron watches. There are a lot of various radio and TV sets, video cassette recorders and CD players in our houses. In factories and plants we are surrounded with electronically controlled machines and instruments, we are carried by airplanes, ships, trains and cars with built-in electronic devices, and satellites circle the globe. In other words, we are living in an electronic world. And the center of this world is a tiny silicon plate of a few square millimetres, an integrated circuit, or a chip, as it is more commonly known. The integrated circuit is undoubtedly one of the most sophisticated inventions of man, science and technology. It is in the heart of every electronic device and the more cassette recorders, TV sets and computers we need, the more integrated circuits are required.

When we speak about a further development of computers we mean not only quantity, but also high technology and high speed. As the operation of an integrated circuit depends on microscopic «components», the purity of all materials and the cleanness at the plant they are produced at must be of the highest quality. A continuous search is going on in laboratories throughout the world for more perfect, reliable and high speed electronic circuits.

In the past it took scientists and researchers a whole lifetime to make a few thousand calculations, whereas for a modern computer this task is a matter of a few seconds. At present computers capable of performing billions of operations a second are required. Supercomputers are different from ordinary computers. The ordinary computer does the computations operation by operation, while the supercomputer operates like a brain: all operations are being done simultaneously.

In the next few years engineers will complete the work on computers of above 2 billion operations a second. It will take a few more years to produce a 10-billion operations computer. The fifth-generation computers performing 100 billion operations a second will become available in the near future. Is there an end to this race?

According to some researchers, we are close to what can be regarded as a true physical limit. But other specialists think that photons will make the operation a thousand times faster. This means that in the future it will be possible to expect the appearance of photon computers and that computations will be done by means of light. Light has several advantages over electronics: light beams are faster, travel in parallel lines and can pass through one another without interference. Already, the optical equivalent of a transistor has been produced, and intensive research on optical-electronic computers is being carried out in a number of countries around the world. In a few decades a new age of light may replace the still youthful electronic age. The race is going on.

Notes to the Text: 1. silicon plate - кремниевая пластина; 2. integrated circuit - интегральная схема; 3. chip – кристалл.

 

 

Текст 10.

Windows

Microsoft Windows (or simply Windows) is a software program that makes your IBM PC (or compatible) easy to use. It does this by simplifying the computer's user interface. The word interface refers to the way you give your computer commands, the way you interact with it.

Usually the interface between you and the computer consists of the screen and the keyboard, you interact with the computer by responding to what's on the screen, typing in commands at the DOS command line to do your work.

DOS often isn't very intelligent at interpreting your commands and most people consider it awkward or intimidating as a user interface. These commands can be confusing and difficult to remember. Who wants to learn lots of computer commands just to see what's on your disk, copy a file, or format a disk?

Windows changes much of this. What's been missing from the PC is a programme that makes the computer easy to use. Windows is just such a program. With Windows, you can run programmes, enter and move data around, and perform DOS-related tasks simply by using the mouse to point at objects on the screen. Of course, you also use the keyboard to type in letters and numbers. Windows interprets your actions and tells DOS and your computer what to do.

In addition to making DOS housekeeping tasks such as creating directories, copying files, deleting files, formatting disks, and so forth, easier, Windows makes running your favorite applications easier, too. (An application is a software package that you use for a specific task, such as word processing). Windows owes its name to the fact that it runs each programme or document in its own separate window. (A window is a box or frame on the screen.) You can have numerous windows on the screen at a time, each containing its own programme and/or document. You can then easily switch between programs without having to close one down and open the next.

Another feature is that Windows has a facility - called the Clipboard - that lets you copy material between dissimilar document types, making it easy to cut and paste information from, say, a spreadsheet into a company report or put a scanned photograph of a house into a real estate brochure. In essence, Windows provides the means for seamlessly joining the capabilities of very different application programs. Not only can you paste portions of one document into another, but by utilizing more advanced document-linking features those pasted elements remain "live". That is, if the source document (such as some spreadsheet data) changes, the results will also be reflected in the secondary document containing the pasted data.

As more and more application programmes are written to run with Windows, it'll be easier for anyone to learn how to use new programmes. This is because all application programmes that run in Windows use similar commands and procedures. Windows comes supplied with a few of its own handy programmes. There's a word-processing programme called Write, a drawing programme called Paintbrush, a communications programme called Terminal for connecting to outside information services over phone lines, small utility programmes that are helpful for keeping track of appointments and notes, a couple of games to help you escape from your work, and a few others.

Years of research went into developing the prototype of today's popular graphical user interfaces. It was shown in the early 1980s that the graphical user interface, in conjunction with a hand-held pointing device (now called the mouse), was much easier to operate and understand than the older-style keyboard-command approach to controlling a computer. A little-known fact is that this research was conducted by the Xerox Corporation and first resulted in the Xerox Star computer before IBM PCs or Macintoshes existed. It wasn't until later that the technology was adapted by Apple Computer for its Macintosh prototype, the Lisa.

 

 

Текст 11.

The Internet

The Internet is a magnificent global network with millions and millions of computers and people connected to one another where each day people worldwide exchange an immeasurable amount of information, electronic mail, news, resources and, more important, ideas. It has grown at a surprising rate. Almost everyone has heard about it and an increasing number of people use it regularly. The current estimate is that over 70 million people are connected, in some way, to the Internet - whether they know it or not. With a few touches at a keyboard a person can get access to materials in almost everywhere. One can have access to full-text newspapers, magazines, journals, reference works, and even books. The Web is one of the best resources for up-to-date information. It is a hypertext-based system by which you can navigate through the Internet. Hypertext is the text that contains links to other documents. A special program known as «browser» can help you find news, pictures, virtual museums, electronic magazines, etc. and print Web pages. You can also click on keywords or buttons that take you to other pages or other Web sites. This is possible because browsers understand hypertext markup language or code, a set of commands to indicate how a Web page is formatted and displayed.

Internet Video conferencing programmes enable users to talk to and see each other, exchange textual and graphical information, and collaborate. Internet TV sets allow you to surf the Web and have e-mail while you are watching TV, or vice versa. Imagine watching a film on TV and simultaneously accessing a Web site where you get information on the actors of the film. The next generation of Internet-enabled televisions will incorporate a smart-card for home shopping, banking and other interactive services. Internet-enabled TV means a TV set used as an Internet device.

The Internet is a good example of a wide area network (WAN). For long-distance or worldwide communications computers are usually connected into a wide area network to form a single integrated network. Networks can be linked together by telephone lines or fibre-optic cables. Modern telecommunication systems use fibre-optic cables because they offer considerable advantages. The cables require little physical space, they are safe as they don't carry electricity, and they avoid electromagnetic interference. Networks on different continents can also be connected via satellites. Computers are connected by means of a modem to ordinary telephone lines or fibre-optic cables, which are linked to a dish aerial. Communication satellites receive and send signals on a transcontinental scale.

 

 

Текст 12.

Computer Graphics

Computer graphics are pictures and drawings produced by computers. A graphics programme interprets the input provided by the user and transports it into images that can be displayed on the screen, printed on paper or transferred to microfilm. In the process the computer uses hundreds of mathematical formulas to convert the bits of data into precise shapes and colours. Graphics can be developed for a variety of uses including illustrations, architectural designs and detailed engineering drawings.

Mechanical engineering uses sophisticated programs for applications in computer-aided design (CAD) and computer-aided manufacturing (CAM). In the car industry CAD software is used to develop, model and test car designs before the actual parts are made. This can save a lot of time and money.

Basically, computer helps users to understand complex information quickly by presenting it in more understandable and clearer visual forms. Electric engineers use computer graphics for designing circuits and in business it is possible to present information as graphics and diagrams. These are certain to be much more effective ways of communicating than lists of figures or long explanations.

Today, three-dimensional graphics along with colour and computer animation are supposed to be essential for graphic design, computer-aided engineering (CAE) and academic research. Computer animation is the process of creating objects and pictures which move across the screen; it is used by scientists and engineers to analyze problems. With appropriate software they can study the structure of objects and how it is affected by particular changes. A graphic package is the software that enables the user to draw and manipulate objects on a computer. Each graphic package has its own facilities, as well as a wide range of basic drawing and painting tools.

The collection of tools in a package is known as a palette. The basic geometric shapes, such as lines between two points, arcs, circles, polygons, ellipses and even text, making graphical objects are called “primitives”. You can choose both the primitive you want and where it should go on the screen. Moreover, you can specify the «attributes» of each primitive, e.g., its colour, line type and so on. The various tools in a palette usually appear together as pop-up icons in a menu. To use one you can activate it by clicking on it.

After specifying the primitives and their attributes you must transform them. Transformation means moving or manipulating the object by translating, rotating and scaling the object. Translation is moving an object along an axis to somewhere else in the viewing area. Rotation is turning the object larger or smaller in any of the horizontal, vertical or depth direction (corresponding to the x, у and z axis). The term «rendering» describes the techniques used to make your object look real. Rendering includes hidden surface removal, light sources and reflections.

 

ОСНОВНОЙ КУРС

 

UNIT 1

IT and jobs in IT.

Information Technology.

 

In the 1960s and 1970s, the term information technology (IT) was a little known phrase that was used by those who worked in places like banks and hospitals to describe the processes they used to store information. With the paradigm shift to computing technology and "paperless" workplaces, information technology has come to be a household phrase. It defines an industry that uses computers, networking, software programming, and other equipment and processes to store, process, retrieve, transmit, and protect information.

In the early days of computer development, there was no such thing as a college degree in IT. Software development and computer programming were best left to the computer scientists and mathematical engineers, due to their complicated nature. As time passed and technology advanced, such as with the advent of the personal computer in the 1980s and its everyday use in the home and the workplace, the world moved into the information age.

By the early 21st century, nearly every child in the Western world, and many in other parts of the world, knew how to use a personal computer. Businesses' information technology departments have gone from using storage tapes created by a single computer operator to interconnected networks of employee workstations that store information in a server farm, often somewhere away from the main business site. Communication has advanced, from physical postal mail, to telephone fax transmissions, to nearly instantaneous digital communication through electronic mail (e-mail).

Great technological advances have been made since the days when computers were huge pieces of equipment that were stored in big, air conditioned rooms, getting their information from punch cards. The information technology industry has turned out to be a huge employer of people worldwide, as the focus shifts in some nations from manufacturing to service industries. It is a field where the barrier to entry is generally much lower than that of manufacturing, for example. In the current business environment, being proficient in computers is often a necessity for those who want to compete in the workplace.

Jobs in information technology are widely varied, although many do require some level of higher education. Positions as diverse as software designer, network engineer, and database administrator are all usually considered IT jobs. Nearly any position that involves the intersection of computers and information may be considered part of this field.

 

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