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Lecture 2.4 Stylistic Use of Set Expressions and Allusions. Stylistic Use Of Synonyms
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The notion of set expressions will be treated in a broad sense here as any combination of words in which some elements are used in their figurative sense. Hence within this notion included will be proverbs, set expressions, epigrams and idioms. Like separate words every set expression may also be stylistically neutral or elevated or degraded (subneutral). Of special interest to stylistics are those two classes which differ from the norm.
The groups of elevated idioms traditionally singled out by linguists are:
a) Archaisms
The iron in one’s soul meaning permanent imbitterment.
b) Bookish lexicon
To go to Canossa – to submit something.
c) Foreign words
Mot juste – the exact word.
The subneutral layer may be further divided into:
a) Colloquial
Alive and kicking – safe and sound.
Small fry – unimportant people.
b) Jargon
A loss leader – a commodity sold below cost to attract customer.
c) Old slang
To be nuts about something – to be overfond of something.
To shoot one’s grandmother – to say something commonplace.
To keep in the pin – to abstain from drinking.
A very important category for stylistics is the frequency of use of idioms.
While their complete absence makes speech poor, excessive use of idioms may also make it unnatural. Both ways of usage of idioms characterise the so called foreigners’ English.
One of the brightest ways to use set expressions and show their stylistic value is their decomposition. This device is based on the fact that the components of a phraseological unit have no meaning of their own. They make up the meaning only when they are manifested in mutual combinations. Decomposition revives the original meaning of the word with the result that the whole phrase get a fresh significance. Here set expression may be used with definite modifications.
He was reported to have the finger in all…
Here the idiom “to have a finger in one’s pie” is first split and then prolonged.
In a decomposed unit two meanings may be realised simultaneously.
It was raining cats and dogs. And two kittens and a puppy landed on my window-sill.
Decomposition may be manifested as:
1) Replacement of words in an idiom
Fact forbid – God forbid.
The gilded age – the gold age.
2) Literal understanding of words
Soams bit his lips. “God knows”, – he said. But he knew better than God. (Golsworthy)
3) Both replacement and literal understanding
Too true to be good. (B. Shaw)
4) Sound likeness of the words employed
The other side of the metal – advertisement in reference to the inner part of a car based on “the other side of the medal”.
Our love is blinds – love is blind.
Stylistic use of Proverbs and Sayings
Both proverbs and sayings are laconic and witty expressions characterised by a greater volume of thought than what they usually manifest by a mere sum or total of their elements. The stylistic value of sayings may also be viewed in the fact that they are elliptical in their structure. Both of them are in many cases rhythmically organised and sometimes rhymically.
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No sweet without sweat.
Epigrams. Epigrams are witty statements, often satirical, normally created by men of letters. In a laconic and expressive form epigrams convey some generalised idea. Some of them are later converted into proverbs as a result of constant reiteration. Poetry is considered to be epigrammatic in its nature. Often the last two lines of English sonnets may be further used as an epigram (Shakespeare’s sonnets, for example).
Allegory. Allegory is often used in proverbs, sayings and epigrams but allegory is more a form of literature and art theory than linguistics. The only branch of linguistics regularly observing allegory is stylistics. Allegories express abstract ideas through concrete pictures. Allegory can be easily represented in complete texts. As for shorter context these are usually proverbs.
Make hey while the sun shines – implies advice which has nothing in common with hey-making or sun shine and means to make use of favourable situations.
All is not gold that glitters.
Every cloud has its silver lining.
No rose without a thorn.
In this respect highly allegorical proverbs should not be confused with maxims which are not metaphorical utterances.
Better late than never.
Allusion. To allude means to mention, hence allusion is a reference to something presumably known to the listener or reader, frequently coming from history, literature, religion. When allusion is manifested by a quotation such a quotation should not be exact.
“No”, - he said wistfully, - “I suppose not. It’s time to dress”. To dress – to dine, and if to dine, to sleep – to sleep, to dream. And then what dreams might come? (Golsworthy)
The stylistic effect of allusions can only be achieved if the utterance alluded is well-known to the reader. Referring to the well-known fact, allusion enables the writer to be more explicit without expanding on the subject too much. Galperin stated that allusions are based on the accumulated experience and knowledge of the writer who presupposes a similar experience and knowledge in the reader.
Stylistic Use of Synonyms
Synonyms in one synonymic group may differ from each other in their stylistic colouring (compare to steal and to pinch) and in emotional evaluative nuances (compare timid and coward). Those synonyms which differ not so much in meaning or in their emotional colouring and which belong to different stylistic types are called stylistic synonyms. Of greatest stylistic value are contextual synonyms which has not been registered as synonyms in any dictionary, which are born as such in a context only. Context saturates a word with such emotional and evaluative nuances and to such a degree that a word loses its logical or dictionary meaning thus becoming a contextual (temporary) synonym. Contextual synonyms help avoid repetition and monotony of speech. They give some additional information thus adding to the preciseness and expressiveness of the utterance. At the same time they reflect a deeply subjective author’s attitude of what he depicts.
Synonyms are realised in the context in different ways. Especially peculiar to the English language are pairs of synonyms whose stylistic function is to intensify the impression.
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To run and rule.
To mask and muffle.
To meek and humble.
Such pairs may be rhythmically organised and alliterated.
The stylistic use of synonyms may not be restricted to synonymical pairs only but can extend to synonymical groups. This device may be regarded as a semantical repetition and is named semantical amplification.
He closed, locked and bolted all the doors and windows.
Synonyms may also be realised through synonimical variations. These variations show their meaning which is rather close in different manifestations within one context or text. This way they help avoid repetition and define a notion from different sides or supplies it with definite colouring of emotions.
The words intelligence and mind and intellect may be used substituting each other. The same as the words stories, legends, narrations, sagas, tales, etc.
Being non synonyms, if regarded as literary terms, turn into such in a special text.
The use of synonyms is recommended to create a better style of writing but only within those functional styles which show a definite imaginative character of the author. Fiction, publicistic style, partially newspaper style, but not scientific or style of the official documents.
The English language is especially rich in synonyms. The ability of the writer or speaker to pick out the appropriate word from a series of synonyms gives him a possibility to express his ideas with the utmost precision and emotionally adequately.
Literature
1. Galperin I.R. Stylistics. – Moscow, 1991.
2. Skrebnev Yu.M. Fundamentals of English Stylistics. – Moscow, 1994.
3. Enkvist, N.E. Linguistic Stylistics. – The Hague, 1973.
4. Esser, J. English Linguistic Stylistics. – Tübingen, 1993.
5. Wales, K. A Dictionary of Stylistics. – London, 1990.
6. Арнольд И.В. Стилистика современного английского языка (Стилистика декодирования). – М., 1990.
7. Балли Ш. Французская стилистика. – М., 1961.
8. Стилистический энциклопедический словарь русского языка / Под ред. М.Н. Кожиной. – М., 2003.
9. Москвин В.П. Выразительные средства современной русской речи: тропы и фигуры. Терминологический словарь-справочник. М., 2004.
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