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Famous people of science and engineering
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George Stephenson
George Stephenson was a British inventor and engineer. He is famous for building the first practical railway locomotive.
Stephenson was born in 1781 in Wylam, near Newcastle upon Tyne, Northumberland. During his youth he worked as a fireman and later as an engineer in the coal mines of Newcastle. He invented one of the first miner's safety lamps independently of the British inventor Humphry Davy. Stephenson's early locomotives were used to carry loads in coal mines, and in 1823 he established a factory at Newcastle for their manufacture. In 1829 he designed a locomotive known as the Rocket, which could carry both loads and passengers at a greater speed than any locomotive constructed at that time. The success of the Rocket was the beginning of the construction of locomotives and the laying of railway lines.
Robert Stephenson, the son of George Stephenson was a British civil engineer. He is mostly well-known known for the construction of several notable bridges.
He was born in 1803 in Willington Quay, near Newcastle upon Tyne, and educated in Newcastle and at the University of Edinburgh. In 1829 he assisted his father in constructing a locomotive known as the Rocket, and four years later he was appointed construction engineer of the Birmingham and London Railway, completed in 1838. Stephenson built several famous bridges, including the Victoria Bridge in Northumberland, the Britannia Bridge in Wales, two bridges across the Nile in Damietta in Egypt and the Victoria Bridge in Montreal, Canada. Stephenson was a Member of Parliament from 1847 until his death in 1859.
UNIT 5
PLASTICS
I. Text A: «Plastics», Text B: «Types of plastics», Text C: «Composite Materials»
II. Famous People of Science: Alfred Bernhard Nobel.
Text A: «PLASTICS»
Plastics are non-metallic, synthetic, carbon-based materials. They can be moulded, shaped, or extruded into flexible sheets, films, or fibres. Plastics are synthetic polymers. Polymers consist of long- chain molecules made of large numbers of identical small molecules (monomers). The chemical nature of a plastic is defined by the monomer (repeating unit) that makes up the chain of the polymer. Polyethene is a polyolefin; its monomer unit is ethene (formerly called ethylene). Other categories are acrylics (such as polymethylmethacrylate), styrenes (such as polystyrene), vinys (such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC)), polyesters, polyurethanes, polyamides (such as nylons), polyethers, acetals, phenolics, cellulosics, and amino resins. The molecules can be either natural — like cellulose, wax, and natural rubber — or synthetic — in polyethene and nylon. In co-polymers, more than one monomer is used.
The giant molecules of which polymers consist may be linear, branched, or cross-linked, depending on the plastic. Linear and branched molecules are thermoplastic (soften when heated), whereas cross-linked molecules are thermosetting (harden when heated).
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Most plastics are synthesized from organic chemicals or from natural gas or coal. Plastics are light-weight compared to metals and are good electrical insulators. The best insulators now are epoxy resins and teflon. Teflon or polytetrafluoroethene (PTFE) was first made in 1938 and was produced commercially in 1950.
Plastics can be classified into several broad types.
1. Thermoplastics soften on heating, then harden again when cooled. Thermoplastic molecules are also coiled and because of this they are flexible and easily stretched.
Typical example of thermoplastics is polystyrene. Polystyrene resins are characterized by high resistance to chemical and mechanical stresses at low temperatures and by very low absorption of water. These properties make the polystyrenes especially suitable for radio-frequency insulation and for parts used at low temperatures in refrigerators and in airplanes. PET (polyethene terephthalate) is a transparent thermoplastic used for soft-drinks bottles. Thermoplastics are also viscoelastic, that is, they flow (creep) under stress. Examples are polythene, polystyrene and PVC.
2. Thermosetting plastics (thermosets) do not soften when heated, and with strong heating they decompose. In most thermosets final cross-linking, which fixes the molecules, takes place after the plastic has already been formed.
Thermosetting plastics have a higher density than thermoplastics. They are less flexible, more difficult to stretch, and are less subjected to creep. Examples of thermosetting plastics include urea-formaldehyde or polyurethane and epoxy resins, most polyesters, and phenolic polymers such as phenol-formaldehyde resin.
3. Elastomers are similar to thermoplastics but have sufficient cross-linking between molecules to prevent stretching and creep.
Vocabulary:
carbon — углерод
flexible — гибкий
fibre — волокно, нить
chain — цепь
identical — одинаковый, идентичный
molecule — молекула
branch — разветвленный
to synthesize — синтезировать
chemicals — химические вещества
to soften — смягчать
cellulose — клетчатка, целлюлоза
wax — воск
thermosetting plastics — термореактивные пластмассы
to harden — делать твердым
coil — спираль
stretched — растянутый
transparent — прозрачный
rubber — резина, каучук
to decompose — разлагаться
soft-drink — безалкогольный напиток
to subject — подвергать
polyurethane — полиуретан
resin — смола
similar — сходный, подобный
sufficient — достаточный
to prevent — предотвращать
General understanding
1. What is the definition of plastics?
2. What is the basic chemical element in plastics formula?
3. What do polymers consist of?
4. What are long-chain molecules made of?
5. What are the main types of polymers?
6. Give examples of plastics belonging to these types.
7. What plastics are the best electrical insulators?
8. Describe the difference between thermoplastics and thermosets.
9. What are the main types of structures of polymers?
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10. What are the most important properties of plastics?
11. Give the examples of various uses of plastics because of their characteristic properties.
Exercise 5.1. Find English equivalents in the text:
1. синтетические полимеры
2. молекулы с длинными цепями
3. характерные свойства полимера
4. синтезируются из органических химических веществ
5. хороший электрический изолятор
6. размягчаться при нагревании
7. затвердевать при охлаждении
8. гибкий и легко растяжимый
9. течь под нагрузкой
10. более высокая плотность
11. менее подвержены ползучести
12. достаточная взаимосвязь между молекулами
Exercise 5.2. Translate into English:
1. Длинные цепи молекул полимеров состоят из одинаковых небольших молекул мономеров.
2. Сополимеры состоят из двух и более мономеров.
3. Пластмассы можно получать в виде листов, тонких пленок, волокон или гранул.
4. Молекулы полимеров могут быть линейными, ветвящимися или с поперечными связями.
5. Малый вес пластмасс и хорошие электроизоляционные свойства позволяют использовать их в радиоэлектронике и электроприборах, а также вместо металлов.
6. Молекулы термопластов имеют извитую форму и, поэтому, они гибкие и легко растяжимы.
7. Эластомеры имеют большое число поперечных связей между молекулами.
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