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The House of Representatives
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Kazakhstan
Kazakhstan, officially Republic of Kazakhstan, has the population of 15,186,000 people and territory 2,719,500 sq km, is situated in central Asia. It borders on Siberian Russia in the north, China in the east, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan in the south, and the Caspian Sea and European Russia in the west. Astana is the capital and Almaty (Alma-Ata) is the largest city. Other major cities include Shymkent, Semey, Aqtobe, and Oskemen.
Kazakhstan consists of a vast flatland, bordered by a high mountain belt in the southeast. It extends from the lower Volga and the Caspian Sea in the west to the Altai Mts. in the east. It is largely lowland in the north and west, hilly in the center (Kazakh Hills), and mountainous in the south and east (Tian Shan and Altai ranges). Kazakhstan is a region of inland drainage; the Syr Darya, the Ili, the Chu, and other rivers drain into the Aral Sea and Lake Balkash. Most of the region is desert or has limited and irregular rainfall.
The population of Kazakhstan consists mainly of Muslim Kazakhs and Russians; there are smaller minorities of Ukrainians, Germans, Uzbeks, and Tatars. Kazakh, a Turkic language, is the official tongue, but Russian is still widely used.
Despite Kazakhstan's largely arid conditions, its vast steppes accommodate both livestock and grain production. Wheat, cotton, sugar beets, and tobacco are the main crops. The raising of cattle and sheep is also important, and Kazakhstan produces much wool and meat. In addition, there are rich fishing grounds, famous for their caviar-producing sturgeon, in the Caspian, although these have been hurt by overfishing.
The Kazakh Hills in the core of the region have important mineral resources. Coal is mined at Qaraghandy and Ekibastuz, and there are major oil fields in the Emba basin. The country's industries are located along the margins of the country. Steel, agricultural and mining machinery, superphosphate fertilizers, phosphorus acids, artificial fibers, synthetic rubber, textiles, and medicines are among the manufactured goods. Temirtau is the iron and steel center. The Baikonur (Bayqongyr) Cosmodrome in central Kazakhstan was the Soviet space-operations center and continues to serve Russian space exploration through an agreement between the two nations. The main trading partners are Russia, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan.
8When I think of Kazakhstan, I imagine the mysterious deserts, vast rocky canyons, unique flora and fauna, the greatness of mountain peaks, emerald lakes.
This Eurasian country belongs to ancient civilization and it has been the home of the nomadic tribes. It is also the birthplace of many prominent people, such as the philosopher Hodja Ahmet Yassavi, famous bard Buhar Zhyrau, Kerey Khan, etc. Today, Kazakhstan is a prosperous country with high level of economy, education and culture.
It is considered to be the largest landlocked country in the world. Being situated in Central Asia, it shares borders with the following countries: Russia, Uzbekistan, China and some others. Its territory is mainly formed of steppe, taiga, deserts, canyons and snow-covered mountains.
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The National Flag of Kazakhstan features a blue rectangular cloth with the sun with 32 rays in the center. There’s a soaring steppe eagle under the sun.
The capital of the country is Astana. It’s a modern cosmopolitan city with plenty of architectural sights. There are two official languages in Kazakhstan: Russian and Kazakh. According to the political system, it’s a presidential republic with the President and the Prime Minister at the head. The population of the country is more than 17 million people. The regular currency is the Kazakh tenge.
The climate of Kazakhstan is amazing. It spans four climatic zones: steppe, forest steppe, desert and semi-desert. The remoteness from oceans and its large area affect weather conditions. It can be severely cold in the north and stifling hot in the south.
Such contrasts are common throughout the country. The shortest season is spring. It lasts only 1,5 months. Over 80% of the territory belongs to inland areas. However, there are 8500 large and small rivers, including Irtysh, Ishim, Tobol, Karatal, Ural, Syr Darya. Many small or medium-sized rivers dry up in summer.
Flora and fauna of Kazakhstan are diverse. There are coniferous forests, steppes, alpine and subalpine meadows. There are plenty of reptiles in Kazakh steppes. Apart from that, antelopes, gazelles, jackals, various rodents can be found there.
Animals seen at the mountainous area are bears, deer, snow leopards and some other species. For wildlife conservation many natural reserves and national parks have been established.
Когда я думаю о Казахстане, то представляю таинственные пустыни, огромные скалистые каньоны, уникальную флору и фауну, величие горных вершин и изумрудные озера.
Это евразийская страна принадлежит к древней цивилизации, она же служила домом кочевых племен. Она также была родиной многих выдающихся людей, таких как философ Ходжа Ахмед Яссави, известный бард Бухар жырау, Керей-хан, и т.д. Сегодня Казахстан – это процветающая страна с высоким уровнем экономики, образования и культуры.
Это крупнейшая в мире страна, окруженная сушей. Будучи расположенной в Центральной Азии, она граничит со следующими странами: Россия, Узбекистан, Китай и некоторыми другими. Ее территория в основном сформирована из степей, тайги, пустыни, каньонов и заснеженных гор.
Государственный флаг Республики Казахстан представляет собой синее прямоугольное полотнище, посередине которого солнце с 32 лучами. Под солнцем парит степной орел.
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Столица страны – Астана. Это современный мегаполис с большим количеством архитектурных достопримечательностей. В Казахстане два официальных языка: русский и казахский. Что касается политической системы, то это президентская республика во главе с президентом и премьер-министром. Население страны составляет более 17 миллионов человек. Общепринятой валютой является казахский тенге.
Климат в Казахстане удивительный. Он охватывает сразу четыре климатические зоны: степь, лесостепь, пустыню и полупустыню. Отдаленность от океанов и большая площадь влияют на погодные условия. На севере может быть необычайный холод, а на юге – удушливая жара.
Такие контрасты часто встречаются по всей стране. Самый короткий сезон – это весна. Она длится всего 1,5 месяца. Более 80% территории относится к внутренним районам, удаленным от моря. Однако там же расположено 8500 больших и малых рек, в том числе Иртыш, Ишим, Тобол, Каратал, Урал, Сырдарья. Многие малые и средние реки высыхают в летний период.
Флора и фауна Казахстана отличаются разнообразием. Там есть и хвойные леса, и степи, и альпийские луга, и субальпийские. В казахских степях много пресмыкающихся. Помимо этого, там можно наткнуться на антилоп, газелей, шакалов и различных грызунов.
К животным, которые встречаются в горных районах, относятся медведи, олени, снежные барсы и некоторые другие виды. Для сохранения дикой природы были созданы многие природные заповедники и национальные парки.
. 8Hello! I am Jane. I am 21. I am a student. I consider it to be a special time in my life. Student life is always full of fun, new impressions and knowledge. I like being a student. Each day I learn something new and communicate with my friends. We meet almost every day. Sometimes we stay at the university after classes to prepare our homework for the next day or just to talk about our student life.
I like spending time with my friends. We often visit each other. I can talk with them for hours. They can help me and support me in any situation. I can say the same about my parents, with whom I live. My mother is a very wise woman. She understands me. We are not only close relatives, but also close friends. We have the same favourite colours — green and blue. These are the colours of nature and the sky. Our family hobby is travelling. We like seeing new places, meeting new people, exchanging our impressions. We often travel in summer and in winter. I adore Turkey, Egypt, and France. These countries have their own traditions, unique nature and culture.
My other hobbies are music and theatre. I often visit the theatre. I sympathize with the characters on the stage. I try to understand them and, finally, I find it easier to solve my own problems watching the play. I understand my family and friends better. I am grateful to them for being so close to me, for their understanding and support.
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9My name is Sergey. I am a student of the second year of study. I study at the university and want to become a teacher of mathematics. This is not an easy profession and I have to work hard in order to achieve my aim. The best time for me to relax and have fun is summer holidays. My friends consider me to be a very active person. I enjoy sports and travelling. In my summer holidays I often play football or basketball with my friends. It makes me healthier and consolidates our friendship. Sometimes, we go to the river and play volleyball on the beach. Then we relax lying in the sun or swimming in the river.
Most of all I like hiking. It is the cheapest way to see beautiful places, become stronger and make good friends. Many of my friends go hiking with me. We start planning our route long before summer holidays. The best place for me to spend summer holidays is the Crimean Mountains. Their unique nature and climate always bring unforgettable impressions. Of course, this type of travelling is not easy and sometimes dangerous. But I am sure my friends will give me a helping hand in any difficult situation and I am always ready to support them as well.
I have already visited many parts of Ukraine. My motherland is really very beautiful, but I dream about going abroad and seeing the Alps in Germany, Austria or Italy. This is my dream for future and I hope to realize it with my friends.
| Mariya | Hello! My name is Mariya. |
| Sophia | Nice to meet you Mariya. I am Sophia. Where are you from? |
| Mariya | I am from London. |
| Sophia | Oh, really? London is my native town. I studied there at the university. Are you a student? |
| Mariya | Yes, I am a prospective bookkeeper. I like my profession. |
| Sophia | I am a bookkeeper too. I work in Canberra in a book store. |
| Mariya | I often visit Canberra in order to buy the latest books of my favourite author Dariya Dontsova. |
| Sophia | I have read some of her books. I like her style of writing. |
| Mariya | We often read her books in the family circle. My parents like her too. |
| Sophia | Do you live with your parents? |
| Mariya | Yes, I do. My elder sister also lives with us. We are close friends with her. Do you have a brother or a sister? |
| Sophia | No, I am the only child of my parents. And I already have my own family, a husband and a child. We are also a friendly family. We can discuss any problem and find the best solution to it. If you wish, you can visit us this weekend. |
| Mariya | Oh! With pleasure. |
11England is often subdivided into three parts: the South, the Midlands and the North. The South. The landscape is varied. The climate is warmer than in other areas. There are hundreds of miles of sea coast which vary from flat or stony beaches to high rocky cliffs. The mild and sunny climate makes the south coast popular with holiday-makers. Some coastal resorts are famous, Brighton among them. Somerset, Devon and Cornwall are rural countries with hidden fishing hamlets and Britain’s warmest weather in winter. There are high and deep wooded valleys. Inland, the landscape is gentle and green; it’s famous for it’s quite beauty of its countryside. One of the most beautiful countries in the South of England is certainly Kent. It is known as the gardens of England, because it is famous for its fruit and vegetables. In general, the South is wealthier than other areas of Britain. Work of all kinds is provided on the land. British Aerospace has factories building aeroplanes in several parts of the South. Lots of people are involved in service industries including financial, business and government services, computer services and information system. There are science-based companies and research organizations. The Midlands. The Midlands Region has much farming land, but this part of the country is better known as an industrial area. Birmingham which is often called ‘the big heart of England’, is the most important city of the Midlands. It is the second largest city in the United Kingdom. Birmingham is famous for engineering, especially car production. Derby is another engineering centre. Rolls Royce makes aero engines and cars there. The West Midlands, Another industrialized area where there are many collieries and steelworks, is known as the Black smoke and blackened buildings there. In contrast, the Midlands region has some beautiful picturesque countryside in the Peak District with its National Park. The North. The weather is considerably colder. There is almost always snow in winter. This is a region of great natural beauty although industry of some kind has existed here for hundreds of years. There is a great contrast in the North between the beautiful open, hilly countryside and the industrial towns and mining villages. In parts of the North – in Yorkshire particularly – there are gentle wooded valleys and green pastures and excellent farming land. West Yorkshire is very good country for ship-farming, and it has long been Britain’s most important area for the wool industry. Some famous industrial cities in the North are Manchester, Sheffield, Leeds and Newcastle-on-Tyne.
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12Mount Tallac stands high above the other peaks of the Sierra Mountains. It is ten thousand feet above the sea. From the top, looking north, one can see a very large, blue, wonderful lake. On every side there are wonderful colours and things,—pine trees, streams, hills. But Lan Kellyan's keen gray eyes did not notice the beautiful colours on the hills and lake. He was a hunter. His leather clothes, brown face, strong body, and clear gray eyes told us that at once. His hunter's eye looked for and found a trail, and he followed it along the ground. He knew that a big bear and her two little cubs were somewhere close by, for the foot-marks of the animals in the grass were still fresh. Lan's horse also knew that a grizzly family was near, for he sniffed and stepped nervously.
Lan got off his horse and then, following the trail, climbed up a steep bank and there, at the top, fifty yards away, he saw an old grizzly and her two cubs. It was too far for a good shot, but Lan fired at what seemed to be the shoulder. The bear, wounded, sprang up and rushed to the place where the smoke from the gun arose. Lan ran down the bank, jumped on his horse and was off like the wind. But the grizzly ran almost as fast, striking at him but missing each time. A grizzly cannot run with great speed for a long distance, and soon the bear fell behind, and returned to her cubs.
Lan went back to his camp, but returned next day to look for that bear. About a week later he was in a small, deep valley with sides of steep rock when he saw, far off, the old bear with her two cubs. As she stopped to drink at the clear stream, Lan fired. When she heard the shot, the bear turned to her cubs and slapping first one and then the other, she chased them up a tree. Lan's second shot struck her. Wounded and raging, she charged fiercely on the hunter. A third shot struck her in the head and she rolled down the side of the great rocks and lay dead at the bottom of the valley. Lan now went to the tree where the cubs still were. They looked at him with fear as he approached them and when he began to climb the tree, they climbed up higher. One of them began to whine and the other to growl, increasing their cries as he came nearer. He took out a rope, arid making nooses, dragged them to the ground in turn. Then he put them into a bag and rode with them to his camp. There he put a collar on each of them, and chained each to a post. They at once climbed up to the top of their posts. Sitting on the top of the posts, one whined and the other growled. For the first few days they refused to eat, but at last they drank some milk which Lan left for them. In another week they even notified their master whenever they wanted food or drink.
II
Jack and Jill, the hunter named the cubs. Jill had a bad temper. When Lan came to give her food, she climbed up the post and growled and ate the food only after he went away. Jack, however, ran down his post to meet his master, and ate his food at once. In a month Jacky grew so tame that Lan allowed him to run free. He followed his master like a dog, and his funny tricks always amused Lan and the few friends he had in the mountains.
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Near the shanty where Lan lived was a meadow, where Lan cut enough hay to feed his two horses during the winter. When the time came to cut the hay, Jack was his daily companion, following close at his heels, or lying on Lan's coat and guarding it from such terrible monsters as squirrels and others. One day Lan found a bee's nest. Jack loved honey, and knew what a bee's nest was; so when Lan said, "Honey — Jacky — honey!" the little bear always ran to the spot quickly. Jacky knew that bees have stings; he therefore approached the nest carefully. Then, when some bees began to come out of the nest, he slapped at them till, one by one, he knocked them down and crushed them.
When he got rid of the last bee in the nest, he ate first the honey, then the grubs and wax, and last of all the bees It was a great feast for him.
Lan's nearest neighbour was Lou Bonamay, a miner. He lived, with his dog, in a shanty about a mile from Lan's shanty. One day, when he came to see Lan, he said, "Lan, bring Jacky and we'll have some fun." He went into the woods and Lan followed him with Jack at his heels.
"There, Jacky, honey — honey!" and Bonamy pointed up a tree to a large wasp's nest. Jacky looked. Certainly those things buzzing up there looked like bees, though he could not understand why the bee's nest had such a strange shape and was in such a place. However, he climbed up the tree. The men waited. Jack reached the branch where the big nest was high over the deep water. He walked along the branch, but very carefully. He took another step forward. What an awful lot of bees! But bees mean honey! So he stepped forward again. The wasps buzzed angrily, and he stepped back. But Bonamy said softly, "Honey — Jacky — honey!"
Jack went slowly, and then waited for a long time till all the bees were back in the nest. Then he moved silently along the branch. When he was just over the nest, he put one little paw over the hole of the nest, and with his other arm seized the nest. Then he jumped from the branch into the stream below, taking with him the nest and the wasps in the nest. As soon as he reached the water, he tore the nest to pieces with his hind feet. The nest floated away down the stream, while the honey-comb lay near the bank of the stream. Jack now swam up to it. Most of the wasps were dead or too wet to be dangerous and Jacky carried the comb to the bank in triumph. There was no honey, of course, but there were lots of fat white grubs which were almost as good. He ate till his paunch looked like a little rubber balloon.
"Now what do you think of that?" said Lan.
"The laugh is on us," answered Bonamy.
14SEPARATION OF POWERS
The American Constitution is based on the doctrine of the separation of powers between the executive, legislative and judiciary. The respective government institutions — the Presidency, Congress, and the Supreme Court and other federal courts — were given limited and specific powers. A series of checks and balances, whereby each branch of government has certain authority over the others, were also included to make sure these powers were not abused. Government power was further limited by means of a dual system of government, in which the federal government was only given the powers and responsibilities to deal with problems facing the nation as a whole (foreign affairs, trade, control of the army and navy, etc.). The remaining responsibilities and duties of government were reserved to the individual State governments.
The System of Checks
Executive Branch
President:
May check the Judicial Branch by
- Granting pardons to those who are convicted of federal crimes
May check Congress by
-Vetoing bills passed by Congress
-Sending messages to Congress
-Appealing to the people
Legislative Branch
Congress:
May check the President by
-Impeaching the President
-Overriding a veto
-Refusing to approve presidential appointments
-Approving or failing to approve treaties
May check the Judicial Branch by
-Impeaching judges
-Changing the number of justices on the Supreme Court
-Proposing an amendment to the Constitution if the
-Supreme Court finds a law unconstitutional
The Judicial Branch
Supreme Court:
May check the President by
-Interpreting laws and treaties
-Ruling that laws and executive acts are unconstitutional
May check Congress by
-Interpreting laws and treaties
-Declaring laws unconstitutional
THE WHITE HOUSE
The President (any natural-born citizen over 34) is elected for a term of four years and can only be re-elected for one more term (according to the Twenty Second Amendment, adopted after Franklin D. Roosevelt's four successive terms).
The President was originally intended to be little more than a ceremonial Head of State, as well as Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces, but the Federal Government's increasing involvement in the Nation's economic life and its prominent role in international affairs, where secrecy and speed are often essential, has increased the importance of the Presidency over Congress.
The President now proposes a full legislative program to Congress, although the President, the Cabinet and staff are not, and cannot be, members of Congress. This means that the various bills must be introduced into the House of Representatives or Senate by their members. The President is consequently completely powerless when faced by an uncooperative Congress. Given also the difficulties in ensuring that the laws passed are effectively implemented by the federal bureaucracy, it has been said that the President's only real power is the power to persuade.
The President is assisted by the members of the Cabinet who administer 11 major departments: State, Defense, Justice, Treasury, Commerce, Labor, Health, Education and Welfare, Housing and Urban Development, Interior, Agriculture and Transportation. Though they rank as the President's chief advisers, in recent decades members of President's administration have generally more influence on him.
The role of the Vice President is not very well defined by the Constitution, which gives him or her no other task than presiding over the debates in the Senate, where he may only vote in the case of a tie. Yet the Vice President takes over from the President in case of death, resignation, or sickness, which has already happened on eight occasions. To try and attract able men to this otherwise unimportant, mainly ceremonial post, Vice Presidents have recently been given more important tasks, especially in foreign affairs.
The residence of the Administration is the White House.
Inaugurations of Presidents and Vice Presidents take place on January 20 of every year following a national election. These ceremonies are held on a platform erected over the great steps on the East front of the Capitol Building. The oath of office is administered by the Chief Justice of the United States.
THE LEGISLATIVE BRANCH
The symbol of government is the white marble dome of the Capitol which dominates the city of Washington, D. С The building has grown with the country: although George Washington laid the cornerstone in 1793, the dome was not finished until 1863, and many changes have since been made. Home to both House and Senate, the Capitol was once hailed as "the center and heart of America".
Congress
The legislative branch of national government, Congress, consists of two houses — the Senate and the House of Representatives, each with a different role, different powers and a different electoral procedure.
The two branches of Congress are responsible for enacting the nation's laws. Though these days most major bills originate in the White House, all must be approved, disapproved, or amended by both Houses, and no measure becomes law until it has been passed by a majority in each House. The President may then sign of veto the bill, but a two-thirds vote in each House can override a veto.
Although Congress can legislate, its most important task has become that of scrutinizing the policies and actions of the executive, and upholding the interests of States and districts. Indeed, since Representatives and Senators depend on the voters in their various States or constituencies for re-election, they tend to satisfy the particular interests of constituents and special groups rather than tackle the problems of the nation as a whole. Congress also controls the nation's finances and its permanent specialist staff helps Congress to consider and change the budget presented each year by the President.
The House of Representatives
The House of Representatives is the dynamic institution of the federal government. The States are represented on a population basis and are divided into congressional districts or constituencies of roughly equal size (around 520,000 people). There are currently 435 members, who are elected every two years. All States must by law adopt the system of single-member constituencies with a simple majority vote. Vacancies arising from death, resignation, etc., are filled by by-elections.
The chairmen of the House of Representatives, the Speaker, is elected by the House and has important responsibilities, giving him considerable influence over the President. Moreover, should the President and Vice President die before the end of their terms, it is the Speaker who becomes President.
The Senate
The Senate is the conservative counterweight to the more populist House of Representatives. Each State has two senators who, since 1913 (the Seventeenth Amendment) have been chosen directly by the electorate in the way decided by the state legislature in each state. Senators are elected every six years, but the elections are staggered so that one-third of the Senate is elected every two years. A vacancy caused by death or resignation is filled until the next congressional elections by the nomination of the State Governor. There are currently 100 senators. The Senate has the special privilege of unlimited debate to safeguard the rights of minorities, but this can enable a small group of Senators to prevent the passage of a bill (filibustering).
FEDERAL JUDICIARY
The Supreme Court stands at the apex of the Nation's Federal Judiciary system and hears cases on appeal from lower courts — the Federal District Courts and the US Courts of Appeals.
There are eight Associate Justices and the Chief Justice in the Supreme Court, and Congress may alter this number. All these High Court judges are nominated for life by the President after being approved by the Senate.
Though the primary function of the Supreme Court is to decide matters of law, rather than fact, the High Court's power to declare acts of the President, Congress, State legislatures, and city councils unconstitutional can drastically alter the nation's practices, as when the Supreme Court branded school segregation unconstitutional in 1954. So, although not explicitly given the power to decide whether the actions of the branches of government violate the Constitution, this is the important role that the Supreme Court has developed in the legal system.
In the federal system there are 90 District Courts (presided over by a district judge), which hear criminal cases involving breaches of federal law and civil cases on federal matters (disputes between States, non-payment of federal taxes, etc.).
Appeals can be made to the United States Court of Appeals, where an appeal is heard by three judges, although in very important cases all nine appeal judges sit together. In the vast majority of cases this court's decision is final and sets a precedent for future cases, although this precedent is not always binding on the Supreme Court.
LOCAL ADMINISTRATION
State Government
There is very little in the Constitution about State government — the Tenth Amendment (1791) merely says that those powers not specially delegated to the federal government are reserved for States. While the fifty State constitutions differ widely, they all include the separation of powers and a system of checks and balances, and share the underlying American belief that government should be kept to a minimum.
Each State has a Governor, a Legislature and a State Judiciary. This means that each State parallels the governmental forms of the Federal system.
The Governor is elected directly in a state-wide election. All the states except Nebraska have bicameral legislatures, normally called the Senate and House of Representatives.
The judicial systems of the States vary greatly in structure and procedures. Generally speaking, however, at the lowest level there are Courts, which deal with the majority of civil and criminal cases. Appeals go to the District Court of Appeals, while the State Supreme Court has the same role as the United States Supreme Court in the federal system.
All States have the right to levy taxes; and many services — such as education, health, welfare, and police — are supported either entirely or in large measure by State, rather than Federal, funds. The sovereignty of State governments has, however, been steadily eroded. Functions such as education, unemployment relief, public works, and the like — once considered entirely within State jurisdiction — are now matters of Federal concern as well.
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