Box 9. 2 hard-to-reach groups. Survey research. Criticisms of surveys
BOX 9. 2 HARD-TO-REACH GROUPS A hard-to-reach group can be any group which is difficult to access for any reason, such as:
· physical inaccessibility (e. g. older frail people) · language (e. g. first-generation immigrants to the UK) · cultural perceptions and traditions (e. g. disadvantaged young people) · social expectations (e. g. children and young people who are often not considered an appropriate consultee and whom often also do not consider themselves as likely to be taken seriously). (Home Office crime reduction website)
Hard-to-reach groups could include:
· homeless people · children and young people · drug users · gay men, lesbian women, transsexual and transgendered people · minority ethnic communities (particular sections of) · victims of domestic abuse · older people (especially older frail people, and isolated older people) · travelers · asylum seekers · people with learning difficulties · people with disabilities · people with mental health problems · faith communities · people who travel or commute into the area · small businesses · rural communities · tourists. Source: www. crimereduction. homeoffice. gov. uk/toolkits/p03110701. htm referenced in Davies et al. (2007)
SURVEY RESEARCH Survey research involves the systematic collection of large quantities of data, by means of questionnaires and/or interviews, from a broad sample of a target population. A range of complex issues are involved, including sampling methods,
Survey questionnaires are an important tool of the social scientist in collecting, categorizing and quantifying data. They allow the researcher to frame a research problem using a structured set of questions. Surveys are most commonly used to answer questions about the extent of beliefs or experience and can be used with a whole population or a sample of a population to provide data that can be general- ized across a larger group. For this purpose, the sample or cross-section must accurately reflect the complexity and heterogeneity of the population to be studied. A cross-section of the prison population, for example, may be surveyed to gain information that can be applied to the whole of the prison population: a prison- based sample must reflect the characteristics of the whole prison population as closely as possible, including gender, black and minority ethnic populations, those serving different sentence lengths for different types of crime, and so on. A prison- based survey must also take account of differing levels of literacy (a self-completion questionnaire would not be suitable for those who cannot read and write) and should be translated where necessary. An example of such a survey is Measuring the Quality of Prison Life (MQPL) which surveys a sample of prisoners in each prison in relation to a number of key elements of prison life, including trust, respect, fair- ness, order and safety (see Ross et al., 2008).
The aim of survey research may be to generate statistics to describe the character- istics of a population – descriptive statistics (e. g. the extent of physical violence suffered by children); or to explore the correlation between two variables – analytic statistics (e. g. the relationship between the extent of physical violence suffered and the level of fear of violence experienced by children). The statistics generated are often used to inform policy and decision making.
CRITICISMS OF SURVEYS The disadvantages of a quantitative survey methodology largely centre around five claims:
1. That the complexities of social data cannot reasonably be measured or recorded using an intrinsically positivistic method (Cicourel, 1964) 2. That the survey method assumes respondents understand and interpret the world around them in the same way, as if one were measuring a natural, unthinking phenomenon (Schutz, 1962) 3. That the meanings and definitions people assign to their experiences are ignored through the use of a structured method (Cicourel, 1982; Oakley, 1981), creating a ‘static’ image of social experience (Blumer, 1956) 4. That they present an obstacle to open discussion and prevent flexibility and spon- taneity (Fox Keller, 1980; Oakley, 1981; Reinharz, 1979) 5. That where surveys involve interviews, the influence of the interviewer and the location of the interview significantly distort responses (Phillips, 1971).
Marsh (1982) counters these claims by arguing that, when surveys are well designed and properly administered, they make a key contribution to our understanding of the social world. She suggests that it is a particular style of survey research, known as smash ‘n’ grab, which has resulted in the bad press associated with this method. For Marsh, smash ‘n’ grab refers to the process whereby researchers design research instruments, undertake fieldwork and analyse data within a very short time frame, literally ‘smashing’ into the field, ‘grabbing’ data and exiting quickly. The result is a hastily developed, carelessly designed and poorly implemented survey that is well deserving of criticism. The questionnaire is the most heavily criticized element of survey research. Questionnaires conducted in interview form are accused of failing to acknowledge the respondents’ or the researchers’ experiences. It is argued that such an approach objectifies the respondent as data, while their subjective experiences and personal meanings become lost in the process (Oakley, 1981). Self-completion questionnaires that do not require direct contact between the researcher and the respondents are viewed as generating detached, stilted data and preventing ‘an interactive process’ (Kennedy Bergen, 1993: 203).
Perhaps most importantly, the research team spent several days, prior to adminis- tering the questionnaire, working in the participating institutions to facilitate links and develop relationships. This type of participatory approach to research allows researchers to begin to understand the research environment and become known to potential respondents. Through participation, researchers can gain the respondents’ trust, provide appropriate support and have an active role in facilitating change. Even when self-completion questionnaires are the chosen method, the process doesn’t have to be detached and stilted. Engaging with the participants in the research environment before and after collecting the data can encourage an interac- tive process that values the meanings people assign to their experiences and provides support.
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