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Snowball sampling: see chain referral sampling.
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Spatial variation: involves differences in the social, geographical or political organ- ization of the phenomenon of interest; in the social sciences, the typical referent is to individuals, small groups, neighbourhoods, cities, regions or countries.
Storytelling: an unstructured interview approach that allows interviewees to guide the narrative on their own terms, in their own language.
Structured interviews: involve the interviewer setting the same questions for all respondents. Standardization means that interviews are easily replicated and ana- lysed. However, the data is deeply influenced by the researcher’s values, definitions and perceptions.
Summative evaluation: concerned with results and backward looking; it is used to assess performances and outcomes up to a certain point in time.
Survey questionnaire: a research tool that gathers data from respondents through eliciting answers to an organized series of questions. The questionnaire may be admin- istered in written form, verbally (with the researcher and respondent interacting in real time), face to face or at a distance (e. g. online, via telephone, email or post).
Survey research: involves the systematic collection of large quantities of data, by means of questionnaires and/or interviews, from a broad sample of a target population
Symbolic interactionism: the theory that deals with how an individual builds the image of him/herself through a communication process with other individuals. It is communica- tion that takes place through symbols, mainly language. In criminology, symbolic interactionism is most commonly associated with the works of Howard S. Becker and Erving Goffman, and the perspective known as ‘labelling’: a process through which the individual is labelled by the social environment as evil, deviant or criminal. Methodologically, symbolic interactionism is associated with qualitative data and fieldwork.
Synchronic: an approach to research that describes a phenomenon at one point in time.
Systematic review: a formulaic and prescriptive form of review that employs trans- parent and systematic criteria for searching the literature, evaluating the suitability of each source and synthesizing results. Such reviews are favoured for feeding into policy making as they bring together the most directly relevant and rigorous evalua- tions on a particular topic.
Tagging: where original documents are digitized and certain words are picked out or ‘tagged’ so that those words, phrases or figures can be searched for and sometimes additional labels can be adopted. For example, if a victim is called ‘John Smith’, he can be tagged as ‘John Smith’, so that his name can be searched for, and also tagged as ‘male’ since we assume that it is a man’s name. Hence, the gender of all victims in the Old Bailey can be collected.
Temporal variation: the differences or change over time in the phenomenon of interest.
Training set: the data in a set, often drawn from past experience, used in machine learning in order to discover predictive relationships. This can be contrasted with test or validation data, which is used subsequently to assess the validity and strength of an identified predictive relationship.
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Transcription: the method of converting the audio and visual data gathered by the researcher into a written form in preparation for coding and analysis. Naturalized transcription is informed by conversation analysis and takes account of every nuance in speech and bodily movement, whilst denaturalized transcription focuses on the more significant meanings.
Triangulation: used in mixed methods research where two or more methods are used to investigate the same phenomenon to ensure consistency and reduce the limitations of a single method. The aim is to seek a convergence and corroboration of the inferences generated from each research component.
Validity the extent to which one can rely upon and trust the findings and conclu- sions of a research study. This involves an evaluation of the methodological objections that can be raised. This means looking at internal validity (can we be sure that a causal relationship exists? ), external validity (can the results be generalised? ) and ecological validity (are the conclusions applicable to everyday situations or have they been drawn from unnatural or unique conditions? ). In addition, construct or meas- urement validity is concerned with whether a measure accurately reflects the concept it is designed to measure.
Variable: an attribute of an observation or set of observations; having a shared meaning with ‘factor’, it is the name a researcher gives to what is being described or measured.
Victim–offender overlap: the notion that many victims of crime are also perpetra- tors. There is a considerable overlap between the two, which is often not recognized in debates about victims of crime.
Virtual ethnography: the adaptation of ethnography to the online environment. Unlike traditional ethnography, where the researcher and those being researched are physically co-present in a given spatial location, virtual ethnography takes place in various online forums or spaces such as chatrooms, discussion groups, social media platforms and interactive simulations.
Visual criminology: the field in criminological and criminal justice studies in which the role and importance of visual experience, images and imagery in criminal offend- ing, criminalization and stigmatization, and crime control, as broadly defined, are explored, analysed and studied.
Visual turn: the focus, from about the 1990s onwards, in the humanities and social sciences, on the visual sphere and visual experience as dimensions of study and analysis.
REFERENCES
Beck, C. and McCue, C. (2009) ‘Predictive policing: what can we learn from Wal-Mart and Amazon about fighting crime in a recession? ’, The Police Chief, 76(11): 20–9.
boyd, d. and Crawford, K. (2012) ‘Critical questions for Big Data: provocations for a cul- tural, technological, and scholarly phenomenon’, Information, Communication and Society, 15: 662–79.
Chan, J. and Bennett Moses, L. (2016) ‘Is Big Data challenging criminology? ’, Theoretical Criminology, 20: 21–39.
Garwood, J. (2006) ‘Quantitative research’, in V. Jupp (ed. ), The SAGE Dictionary of Social Research Methods. London: Sage, pp. 251–2.
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Gerring, J. (2017) Case Study Research: Principles and Practices, 2nd edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Glaser, B. G. and Strauss, A. L. (1967) The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research. Chicago: Aldine.
Kitchin, R. (2014) ‘Big Data, new epistemologies and paradigm shifts’, Big Data and Society, 1: 1–12.
Maguire, M. (2000) ‘Policing by risks and targets: some dimensions and implications of intelligence-led crime control’, Policing and Society, 9: 315–36.
Perry, W. L., McInnis, B., Price, C. C., Smith, S. C. and Hollywood, J. S. (2013) Predictive Policing: The Role of Crime Forecasting in Law Enforcement Operations. Santa Monica, CA: RAND.
Uchida, C. (2014) ‘Predictive policing’, in G. Bruinsma and D. Weisburd (eds), Encyclopedia of Criminology and Criminal Justice. New York: Springer, pp. 3871–80.
INDEX
NOTE: Page numbers in italic type refer to boxes, figures and tables. Page numbers in bold type refer to glossary entries.
abductive approach, 118
abolitionism, 138, 139–40, 141, 146, 289, 519
abstracts, 163
academic writing, 26–7, 162–9 access
in ethnography, 389, 397–8, 399–410, 403
to ‘hard to reach’ groups, 202–3, 217–18, 219
in human trafficking research, 348, 352–3 to online resources, 415
planning, 52
to prisons, 145, 329
to victims of state violence, 328–9 across method triangulation, 97 Adler, P., 389
adversarial model, 456, 463
aims see research objectives/purpose Akers, R. L., 286
Alexander, C. S., 213
algorithm, 256–8, 262, 519
Alker, Z., 363
All Our Kin (Stack), 485 analysis see data analysis annotated bibliographies, 83, 84
anonymity, 56, 216, 399, 400, 422, 423
anti-social behaviour, 126–8
Antonopoulos, G., 403–4
anxiety management, 173 appendices, in dissertations, 164 Approaching a City (Hopper), 441 arrest data, 241
artwork, 434–6, 440–41, 443–5
Ashcan group, 441 assault
historical victims of, 186–7, 189–90
see also violence
Asylums (Goffman), 485
asynchronous interviews, 421
attrition, 312–13
audiences, 10–11, 167, 169
authenticity, 389
see also truth
auto-ethnography, 402
autobiography, 375–6, 519
The Bailey see Old Bailey Barthes, R., 443
Baxandall, M., 444
Becker, H., 477–8
Becker, H. J., 213
Belmont Report, 150–1
benchmarks, 7, 519
Bengtsson, T. T., 103 Bennett Moses, L., 251 Bennett, R., 461–62
Bentham, J., 437
Berk, R., 256
Best, D., 126
bibliographic databases, 81
bibliographic referencing, 46, 83, 165
bibliographies, 164–5, 278 Big Data
concept of, 252–3, 395, 519
and history of victims, 183, 191–93
uses of, 252–3 Big Data analytics
evaluation of, 263–4
limitations of, 258–62
non-transparency of, 262–3 use in crime prediction, 253–8
biographical research criminological inquiry, 367–71 in criminology context, 364–7 critical consideration of, 374–7 Digital Panopticon, 371–74
biographical turn, 367
biography, 519
Blaxter, L., 52
Boeije, H., 275
Boolean operators, 80–1
Boutellier, H., 457
Bowling, B., 100
Bows, H., 93, 99, 106
Bradburn, N. M., 213
brainstorming, 170
bribery research example, 490–1 ‘brief and charge’, 444–5, 449, 519
Brienen, M., 462–3
Briggs, D., 393
British Crime Survey see Crime Survey for England and Wales
British Society of Criminology (BSC), 56, 107, 151–2, 201
Brown, A. D., 418–19
Brown, S., 214–15, 216–19
Brunovskis, A., 347
Bryman, A., 100, 122, 216
burglar alarms, 239
burglary, 238–40, 242–3, 459–60
Cambridge Study of Delinquent Development, 301
Campbell Collaboration, 75, 78
CAPI (Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing), 19–20
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CAQDAS (computer-assisted qualitative data analysis), 279–80
car parks, 237
car theft, 234–8, 241–42
Carlsson, C., 297, 302–5
Carr, N., 104–5
case (definition), 479, 519
case studies (definition), 479, 519
Case Study Methods: Principles and Practices
(Gerring), 478–9
case study research, 21–2, 389
approaches to, 476–8
case selection, 481–82
classic studies, 485
and comparative case research, 483–5 and comparative criminology, 483–5 contemporary examples, 486–90
history of, 476–8
key terms, 478–81
strengths and limitations of, 483 causal case studies, 481–82, 483
causal relationship, 259, 299–300, 519
Cavadino, M., 456–7
CCTV (closed circuit television), 237 chain referral sampling, 54, 422, 520
Chan, J., 251
Chicago School, 103, 364, 387, 477 child sexual abuse (CSA) research, 274
analysis for theory building, 286–7 context, 272–3
documentary analysis, 276–8
hypothesis testing, 288
interview analysis, 278–83, 284–5
and reflexivity, 290, 291
child sexual exploitation (CSE), 273 children
research with, 201–3, 217–18
as victims of state see victims of state violence Children and Young People’s Safety Survey
(CYPSS), 217
chronologically structured literature reviews, 85 Chu, D., 464–6
classification trees, 256–8
clean/dirty data, 232, 520
Cleveland Inquiry, 272
closed circuit television (CCTV), 237 closed questions, 98, 210, 211, 212
cluster samples, 53
coding, 280, 392
Cohen, S., 145, 146, 485
coining, 184–5, 520
collaboration, 460–1
comparative case research, 483–5 comparative criminology, 483–5, 491–2
comparative methodology, 460–62, 520
comparative research, 8–9
burglary example, 459–60
importance of, 458–60
post-globalization, 467–8
in practice, 462–7
typologies, 460–62
COMPAS (Correctional Offender Management Profiling for Alternative Sanctions), 255, 261
competence, of children, 201–2
complainants, 181–82, 184–5, 187, 188, 191, 520
complementarity, 125, 520
Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing (CAPI), 19–20
computer-assisted qualitative data analysis (CAQDAS), 280–91
concepts, 283–5
conceptual themes, 281–3, 283–5, 520
conclusions, 164
anticipating, 9–10
confidentiality, 56, 207, 216, 217, 396, 399
confirmation bias, 392 consent see informed consent
consequentialist ethics, 148–50
constructivism, 96, 477, 520
content analysis, 50, 51, 281–83, 417–18, 520
content crimes, 419
context, of ethnographic research, 388–9 continuous evaluation, 510, 520
convenience samples, 53
Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime, 343
convergent parallel design, 122 Copes, C., 397
copyediting, 168
copyright, 171
Correctional Offender Management Profiling for Alternative Sanctions (COMPAS), 255, 261
correlation, 259–60, 261, 521
costs, 329, 421
counter-trafficking efforts, 345, 349–50
court registers, 181–82
covert observation, 425–6, 521
covert research, 389, 390, 399–400, 403,
404, 521
Cox, D., 371
Cox, P., 179
creative methods, 104–5
Creswell, J. W., 128 crime
case study examples, 486–7 comparative research on, 466–7 data see data
desistance from, 308, 310
disclosure of, 396, 398, 399
crime concentration, 233
crime control, and images, 441–42 crime drop
alternative explanations, 243–4
background, 230–32
data sources, 232–4
future research, 244, 245
and reductions in criminality, 241–42 research methods, 232–3
security and burglary, 238–8, 242–3
security and car theft, 234–8, 242 security and violence, 240–1
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Crime in the Making (Sampson and Laub), 310
crime prediction see offender risk assessment; predictive policing
crime rates
comparative research, 466–7
see also crime drop
Crime Survey for England and Wales (CSEW), 15–17, 19
and crime drop, 234, 235, 239, 240–1
and gender, 377
and sensitive topics, 206–8 criminal biographies, 367–74
criminal careers, 241 criminal justice
case study examples, 487–90 comparative research in practice, 462–4 and globalization, 456–8, 468
historical study see history of victims
human trafficking in context of, 343–4, 346 and images, 440–42, 447–9
importance of comparative work, 458–60 international comparisons, 456–7
and researching victims, 180–1 shifting focus of, 457–8
Criminal Lives (Godfrey et al), 371 criminality, reductions in, 241–42 criminalization, 440
criminological research, golden threads of, 3–5
criminology
and biography see biographical research and ethnography see ethnography
and scientific relevancy, 143–4 critical approach
in evaluation research, 502–3 in victimology, 375–6
critical engagement with literature, 85 critical ethnography, 401
critical reading, 46
critical reflection, 26, 57–8, 288–91, 445
see also reflexivity
critical research, 324–5, 334, 521
cross-case research, 479–81, 481, 483, 485
cross-cultural research, 8–9
cross-sectional methodology, 521
compared with longitudinal, 299, 311–15
cross-sectional studies, 521
CSEW see Crime Survey for England and Wales cybercrime, 414, 419–20
CYPSS (Children and Young People’s Safety Survey), 217
Daley, Tom, 434–6
Daly, K., 475, 488, 489–90
data
on crime, 14–17
and ethics, 56
limitations of, 258–9, 302, 303, 306, 346–7,
416–17
qualitative, 49, 307–9
quantitative, 49, 306–7, 501–2
see also Big Data; crime rates; official data/ documents; secondary data
data analysis
in ethnography, 392
qualitative and quantitative, 54, 55–6
of web-based content, 417–20
see also qualitative data analysis; secondary analysis
data analytics, 521
evaluation of, 263–4
limitations of, 258–62
non-transparency of, 262–3
use in crime prediction, 253–62 data collection methods
in crime drop research, 232–4 definition of, 94, 525
dominance of quantitative, 386–7
for evaluations, 501–3, 505, 508–9, 511 in longitudinal research, 305–11
online, 420–27
for primary research, 18–22, 48–52, 97–105
proposing, 48–52
for secondary research, 105–6
for study of historical victims, 181–83, 192–3
see also biographical research; documentary analysis; ethnography; interviews; mixed methods research
data presentation, 169
data signatures, 237, 240, 242–4, 521
David, G., 447
Davies, P. A., 42, 43
Davies, M. D., 49
Davies, P., 1, 26–7, 271 De Cao, E., 210
de Lange, A., 300 Deakin, J., 199
debut crimes, 241
deception, 389, 396
decision making, 3, 13–14, 22, 29, 131, 521
deductive, 521
deductive research, 43, 70, 118, 274, 394,
477, 521
Delinquency in a Birth Cohort (Wolfgang et al), 302 delinquency research, 301, 302, 303–5, 310, 365–6
Denney, A. S., 68
Denscombe, M., 115–16
Denzin, N., 97
descriptive research, 43, 94–5, 522
case studies, 481, 482 design see research design desistance, 308, 310, 373, 527
development, in mixed methods, 125, 522
developmental and life-course criminology, 522
see also life-course research deviance, and images, 440–1 Deviant Leisure Group, 404 diachronic, 484, 522
diaries (fieldwork), 279, 529
digital corpus linguistic methods, 192–3, 522
digital divide, 422–3
Digital Panopticon, 183, 371–73
digital sources, 81, 183, 184, 191, 192–3, 370–
74, 415, 416–17
see also online research Dignan, J., 456–7
dirty data, 232, 520
disclosure of crimes, 396, 398, 399
discourse, 437
discourse analysis, 354–5, 522
discrimination, 260–62
discussion section, in dissertations, 164 disorder see riots
dissertation planning, 37–9
research design, 48–58
research proposal, 58–60
topic and research questions, 39–47 writing up, 162
dissertation structure, 71, 72
dissertation writing, 162–9
distance/detachment, 422, 424
documentary analysis, 275, 276–8, 283,
326–7, 354–5
documents, 50, 51
in evaluation research, 502, 505, 508, 511 in study of historical victims, 181–83
domestic abuse, 8
see also intimate partner violence domestic burglary, 238–40, 242–3, 459–60
draft stop, 172
drafts, 168
Duffy, M. E., 420
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Duneier, M., 389
Dussel, E., 153, 154
Easton, S. D., 279–80
electronic immobilisers, 236, 242
email surveys, 423
embedded design, 122
emotion, 26–7
emotionality, 331–32, 351–52, 439, 522
environment assessment, 522
epistemology, 522
concept of, 141–2
and critical reflection, 288–91 and ethics, 148–54
and ethnography, 393
and methodology, 94, 96 and mixed methods, 115–16
and politics of research, 142–8 prison example, 138–41, 145–8 and theoretical literature, 69
ethics see research ethics ethnography, 20–1, 103, 522–3
advanced approaches, 400–4
aims of, 388
challenges in, 393–4
in criminology, 394–404
ethics in, 42, 389, 396–7, 399, 403
history of, 387
methods, 388
process of, 388–92 researcher voice in, 166 virtual/online, 403–4, 424–7
evaluation, 523
and Big Data analytics, 263–4 commissioner influence, 506
and consequences, 510–14
of counter-trafficking, 345
data collection methods, 501–503, 505, 508–9, 511
‘Inside Out’ Prison Program, 504–7 of mixed methods research, 128–9 nature of, 498–9
performance indicators, 499–501
politics of, 503–7
purpose of, 7–8, 503
and relationships, 507–10 and systematic reviews, 75
Eviction (Shinn), 441
expansion, 126, 523
experience, 436, 523
explanatory research, 43, 95, 523explanatory sequential design, 122 exploratory research, 95, 482, 483 exploratory sequential design, 122 external validity, 13
Farrall, S., 100, 371
Farrell, G., 229
Farrington, D. P., 75–7, 106
feedback, 173, 510, 511–14
feedback loops, 260
feminist ethnography, 401–2
feminist perspectives, 286–7, 289–90 fictional accounts of human trafficking, 355 field notes, 391
Fielding, N., 389
fieldwork, 388, 391–92, 523
fieldwork diaries, 279, 529
Figlio, R. M., 302
Filipas, H. H., 288
film stills, 443
films, 171
Finch, J., 214
findings section, in dissertations, 164 first person writing, 26–7
focus groups, 102–3, 400
Folk Devils and Moral Panics (Cohen), 485
foreign bribery, 490–91
formative evaluations, 510, 523
Foucault, M., 437
Francis, P., 1, 25, 35, 58, 375
fraud (online), 419
Fricker, M., 152–3
Frost, L., 371
funding see research funding funding fit, 145–8
Gaarder, E., 487–9
Gallagher, B., 217
Gariglio, L., 446
Garland, D., 458
gatekeepers, 27, 218, 389
Gelsthorpe, L., 365, 374
gender, 184–7, 376–7
generalizability, 8, 99, 101, 393–4, 404, 523generalization, and discrimination, 261 Gerring, J., 478–9, 481, 483–4
Gerstenfeld, P. B., 420
Gfroerer, J., 209
Gillam, L., 397
Global Slavery Index, 347 globalization, 8–9
comparative work after, 468 concept of, 457
and criminal justice, 456–8 decline of, 467–8
Glueck, E., 310, 369–70
Glueck, S., 310, 369–70
goals, and performance targets, 500 Godfrey, B., 179, 183, 187, 188, 190, 371,
373–4
Goffman, E., 485
‘going native’, 390–1
Goodey, J., 367, 369
Google Scholar, 81, 415
Goya, F., 440
graffiti art, 440–1
grand theory, 286
‘grassing’, 399
Green, N., 42
Greene, J. C., 125, 128–9
grey literature, 70
grounded theory, 71, 274, 523
group interviews, 102
Gruenewald, J., 486
Gruenfeld, E., 279–80
Guillemin, M., 397
Habigzang, L. F., 281–3
Haiven, M., 154
Hall, A., 161, 403
Hall, M., 455
Hall, S., 21, 385, 396–7
Hallsworth, S., 402
Hammersley, M., 101, 142
harassment (online), 419
‘hard to reach’ groups, 104, 202–3, 523
and surveys, 208–9, 217–18, 219
Harding, J., 284, 285–6
harm, 28, 29
Harris Review, 146–7, 148
Harvey, M., 440
hate speech (online), 419–20 Hayward, K., 438
Heap, V., 113, 126–8
Her Majesty’s Prison and Probation Service (HMPPS), 145
Hillis Miller, J., 444 Hirst, P., 467
historical child sexual abuse, 272
historical institutional abuse see institutional abuse; victims of state violence
historical research, digital sources, 183, 184–5,
191, 192–3, 370–74
history of victims
evolving study of, 183, 190–1 future research on, 190–93 and gender, 186–7
importance of researching, 180–1 methods of study, 181–83, 192–3
Old Bailey Online, 184–5, 191, 192 victims as drivers of justice, 188 victim–offender overlap, 189–90
Ho, K., 399–400
Hoegen, H., 462–3
Hohendorff, J. V., 281–83
Holdaway, S., 389
homicide research example, 486–7
Hopper, E., 441
hot spot policing, 255 hot spots, 523
human trafficking definition/elements of, 342, 343
documentary analysis, 354–5 evaluation of counter-trafficking, 345 interviews, 349–54
knowledge on, 346–7
research on, 342, 347–55
Trafficking Protocol, 343–6
hypotheses, 231–32, 523
hypothesis testing, 287–8, 523
ICVS (International Crime Victimization Survey), 233, 466–7
illegal drug use, 122, 123–4 images see visual criminology impact evaluation, 508
impact of research, 10–11, 334
incidence rates, 233, 524
Independent Inquiry into Child Sexual Abuse, 273
indicators, 22
inductive, 524
inductive bias, 260
inductive research, 43, 70, 96, 274, 524
and abductive approach, 118 case studies, 477
ethnography as, 392
in practice, 278, 280
inference quality, 128, 524
inference transferability, 129
inferences, 125–6, 259, 260, 524
informed consent, 28, 56, 200–2, 389–90, 425
initiation, 126, 524
inquests, 138, 524
inquiries into child sexual abuse, 272–3, 276 inquisitorial model, 456, 463
‘Inside Out’ Prison Program, 504–7 insiders/outsiders, in ethnography, 397–9 institutional abuse
case study example, 488, 489–90 see also victims of state violence
integration, and mixed methods, 124–8, 130
intelligence-led policing, 524
interactionism, 26
see also symbolic interactionism interest, in research topic, 172 internal validity, 13, 483
International Crime Victimization Survey (ICVS), 233, 466–7
International Labour Organization (ILO), 346 international research, 8–9
see also globalization internet, 414
see also online research internet crime, 414, 419–20
interpretive approach, 96, 115, 393, 477
interpretive methods, 502–3
interviewer characteristics, 329–30
interviews, 19–20, 100–2
analysis of, 275, 278–83, 284–5
in evaluation research, 502, 505, 508–9, 511
group interviews, 102
in human trafficking research, 349–54 life history interviews, 308–9, 315, 365–6
narrative approach, 323–4
online, 421–23
power in, 322–3
semi-structured, 100, 278–9, 322, 349–54, 400 strengths and weaknesses, 50–1
structured, 19, 322
unstructured, 19, 20, 100, 322, 323–4, 327 with victims of state violence
access, 328–9
background, 324–6
building trust, 329–30
emotionality, 331–32
method choice, 326–7
reflections, 332–5
speaking out, 330–1
intimate partner violence, 487–9 intimate personal violence, 207–8 introductions, 163
inverse trend, 524
The Jack Roller, 365–6, 374
Jay Report, 272–3
Joliffe, D., 77
Jones, T., 463
journal articles, 415
joyriding, 235–6
The Judgement of Cambyses (David), 447–9 Jupp, V., 41, 48–9, 365–6, 367
justice see criminal justice
Kearon, T., 188
Kelley, K., 486
Kelly, L., 205
Kennet, J., 209
key informants, 389, 398, 400
Khasnabish, A., 154
King, A., 125
Kirchengast, T., 186
Kleck, G., 98
knowledge see epistemology; theory building Koestler Trust, 434
Koller, S. H., 281–83
labour trafficking, 342
language, 437–8
Laub, J. H., 308, 310
law
and documentary analysis, 354–5
see also criminal justice; police and policing learning from mistakes, 173
Lee, E., 420
Lee, R. M., 202, 216
Leets, L., 420
length of dissertations, 166–7 Lewis, P., 487
library catalogues, 81
life history interviews, 308–9, 315, 365–6, 524
life-course research advantages of, 299–300
and biography, 368–70
cross-sectional and longitudinal compared, 311–15
definition of, 300, 524
mixed methods, 309–11
prospective and retrospective, 300–305 quantitative and qualitative, 305–9
Lippens, R., 433 literature, types of, 69–70
literature reviews, 11–12, 525in dissertation structure, 163 examples of, 72–3, 77
narrative reviews, 37–8, 45, 73–4, 79, 83
nature of, 44–5, 68–71
online, 415
process, 80–5
purpose of, 12, 71–2, 95
as research method, 106
systematic reviews, 37–8, 45, 75–9, 106,
276, 277
literature searches, 80–2
literature-based dissertations, 37–8, 48–52 Lloyd Warner, W., 477
loaded questions, 212–13
location of crime, predicting, 254–5 location of research, 388–9
Loeber, R., 312
Lombroso, C., 437
long questions, 212
Long Weatherred, J., 277 longitudinal research/studies
compared with cross-sectional, 311–15 definition, 300, 525
mixed methods, 309–11
prospective and retrospective, 300–305 quantitative and qualitative, 305–9
Lö sel, F., 77
lurking, 425
Lutz, C., 210
Luyendijk, J., 399–400
McCormack, D., 154
McGarry, R., 363
machine learning, 260, 525
macro theories, 69
Maguire, M., 366
malestream view, 376–7
Mancini, C., 424
Marsh, C., 205
Maruna, S., 125, 305–6, 309
Mawby, R., 459
Maxwell-Stewart, H., 371
May, T., 41, 70
meaning, 275, 443
Mears, D. P., 424
media, 170, 276, 277, 355
Meisenhelder, T., 307–8
Merriam, S. B., 477
meso theories, 69
meta-analysis, 77–8, 106
meta-inferences, 125, 524
methodological choices, 22, 130–1, 305, 309
methodological pragmatism, 130–1, 305, 309
methodological tools, 525
methodologically structured literature reviews, 85 methodology, 12–13
definition of, 94, 525
developing framework, 94–7
in longitudinal research, 300, 305
mixed methods, 130–1
primary data collection, 18–22, 97–105
research proposals, 22–4
secondary research/analysis, 14–18, 105–6
validity, 13–14
see also comparative methodology; longitudinal research/studies; visual criminology
methodology section, in dissertations, 163–4 methods see data collection methods
micro theory, 69, 285
middle-range theory, 285, 286
migrant research, 200
Milivojevic, S., 341 Mills, C. W., 23 mind maps, 43–4
Mishler, E. G., 100
mixed methods designs, 119–24, 525
mixed methods research, 52, 54, 105, 387
evaluating, 128–9
integrating results, 124–8, 130
longitudinal, 309–11
philosophical underpinnings, 114–19
project creation, 129–32
and triangulation, 97, 125
moderatum generalization, 393–4
Morrow, V., 201
multi-generation research, 525
multi-phase mixed methods design, 121–2 multiple realities, 117, 118, 525
multisensory ethnography, 402–3
Muncie, J., 458
Myra (Harvey), 440
Naffine, N., 289
narrative approach in interviews, 323–4, 327
narrative criminology, 167–8 narrative literature reviews, 37–8,
45, 73–4, 79, 83
narrative turn, 366–7
National Rural Crime Network (NRCN), 23–4 natural experiments, 236, 526
Nelken, D., 458, 459, 460–1
Newburn, T., 73–4, 463, 487
newspapers, 182–3, 192–3
non-governmental
organizations (NGOs), 352–3, 526
non-participant observation, 403, 425, 526
non-response, 422
non-transparency of data analytics, 262–3 nonprobability sampling, 53–4
see also purposive sampling note taking, 46, 83, 172
NVivo 10 software, 280–83
objectives see research objectives/purpose O’Brien, E., 355
observation(s), 20, 50, 479–80, 502, 526
see also non-participant observation; participant observation
obtuse meaning, 443
offender risk assessment, 252, 255–8, 526
evaluation of tools, 263–4 limitations of techniques, 258–62
non-transparency of data analytics, 262–3 offenders see offender risk assessment; prison/
prisoner research; victim–offender overlap Office for National Statistics (ONS), 15–16 official data/documents, 14–18, 302, 303, 306–7,
326–7
see also Crime Survey for England and Wales Old Bailey, 526
Old Bailey Online (OBO), 183, 184–5, 191, 192
online crime, 414, 419–20
online ethnography, 403–4, 424–7
online fraud, 419
online interviews, 421–23 online literature reviews, 415 online research
analysing content, 417–20 finding secondary data, 416–17 meanings of, 414
reaching participants, 220, 420–27
online sources, 81, 183, 184, 191, 192–3, 370–
74, 415, 416–17
online surveys, 423–4
ONS (Office for National Statistics), 15–16 ontology, 526
concept of, 140
and ethics, 148–54
and ethnography, 393
and methodology, 94, 96 and mixed methods, 117
and politics of research, 142–8 prison example, 138–41, 145–8 and theoretical literature, 69
open questions, 98, 210–11, 212
Operation Yewtree, 272
operationalization, 22, 313–14
oral presentations, 169–70 Ordinary of Newgate, 368 organising oral presentations, 170
outsiders/insiders, in ethnography, 397–9 ‘over-rapport’, 391, 398
overt research, 389, 390, 526
Pain, R., 25
para-suicide, 154, 526
paradigm wars, 115, 119
participant observation, 20–1, 103, 388,
398–9, 526
online, 403–4, 425, 426–7
see also ethnography
participants see research participants participatory approach, 206
peer support, 57
penal abolitionism, 138, 139–40, 141, 146, 289
penal reform, 139–40, 140–1, 146
penetration rate, 414
Pennington, L., 488, 489
performance indicators, 499–501, 527
performance targets, 500, 527
persistence, 310, 369–70, 373, 527
see also recidivism perspective, 69, 283, 438, 527
see also abolitionism; feminist perspectives philosophy see epistemology; ontology photo elicitation, 104, 446
photo voice, 104–5
photographs, making sense of, 443 Pickett, J. T., 424
Pierre, E. A. S., 100
pilot studies, 211, 216, 218
Pink, S., 402–3
Piss Christ (Serrano), 440 Pittsburgh Youth Study, 312
plagiarism research example, 479–80, 481, 482,
483, 484
planning see dissertation planning Plano Cark, V. L., 128
Platts-Fowler, D., 126
plays, 171
Plummer, K., 367
police and policing, 101–2, 186, 418–19, 463–6
policy-related research, 28, 75, 78, 354–5
The Polish Peasant in America and Europe
(Thomas and Znaniecki), 364
politics of research, 27–8, 78, 142–8, 352, 394,
396, 503–7
Pollock, J., 449
positivism, 96, 115, 143–4, 477, 527
Post Release Options Project (PROP), 510–14 postal questionnaires, 220
postpositivism, 305, 527
power, in interviews, 322–3 practise, to improve writing, 173
pragmatism, 115–16, 118, 130–1, 305, 309, 527
praxis, 287, 334, 527
prediction, 527
predictive policing, 252, 253–5, 258–64, 527
PredPol, 254, 260, 262
preparation, 172
see also dissertation planning Presdee, M., 438
presentation of research, 9–10, 162
audiences, 167, 169 crafting final copy, 168–9 data presentation, 169
mixed methods research, 131–2 oral presentations, 169–70
purposes of, 167–8
top tips, 171–3
visual and virtual, 170–1 writing up, 162–9
prevalence rates, 233, 346–7, 528
primary data collection, 14, 18–22, 48–52,
97–105, 275
primary research based dissertation, 37–8, 45
priority question, 119–20, 122 prison/prisoner research
access, 145, 329
and ethics, 152
intervention evaluations, 504–10
interviews, 329, 330, 332
ontology, epistemology and, 138–41, 145–8
surveys, 204
see also offender risk assessment prisoner peer support programme, 507–10 prisoners’ art, 434–6
prisons, PFI contract models, 468 private finance initiative (PFI), 468 probability sampling, 53, 423, 528
probation research, 104–5
procedural ethics, 397
process analysis, 528
PROP (Post Release Options Project), 510–14 prosopography, 191, 528
prospective design, 300–2, 312, 528
proxy variables, 261
public attitudes, 214–15, 218–21, 424, 464–6 public-private partnerships (PPPs), 468 purpose see research objectives/purpose purposive sampling, 53, 418, 528
qualitative data, 49, 307–9
qualitative data analysis, 54, 55–6
critical reflection, 288–91
of documents, 275, 276–8
early consideration of, 273–4, 275 and hypothesis testing, 287–8
of interviews, 275, 278–83, 284–5
online, 418, 420
sources and choice of, 274–5 types and levels, 282–7
qualitative meta-synthesis, 78
qualitative methodology, 95–7, 305, 528
qualitative methods, 98, 100
for evaluations, 502
in longitudinal research, 305–6, 307–11
qualitative research, 528and case studies, 480–81 credibility of, 387
human trafficking interviews, 348, 349–54
and sampling, 53
see also mixed methods research; paradigm wars quality, of online sources, 415
quality assurance, 528
quantitative content analysis, 417–18 quantitative data, 49, 306–7, 500–2
quantitative data analysis, 54, 55–6, 417–18
quantitative methodology, 95–7, 305, 528
quantitative methods, 98
dominance of, 386–7
for evaluations, 501–2
limitations of, 386, 387
in longitudinal research, 305–7, 309–11
quantitative research, 529and case studies, 480–81 and sampling, 52
see also mixed methods research; paradigm wars quasi-ethnography, 425
questionnaires, 50, 98–100, 502, 529
example research, 217–21
strengths and weaknesses, 51, 100, 205–6 questions see closed questions; open questions;
research questions; survey questions quota samples, 54
race, and data analytics, 261 Ragin, C., 477–8
random forest approach, 256–8 random samples, 53
rapid evidence assessments (REAs), 77, 106
rapport, 351, 391, 398, 422, 427
see also trust
readers/audiences, 10–11, 167, 168
reading, 46, 82
realism, 393, 404
realist reviews, 78 reality see ontology recidivism, 255–8, 373
see also persistence Redmon, D., 171
reference lists see bibliographies
reflection, 5, 26, 57–8, 288–91, 391–92, 445
reflective fieldwork diary, 279, 529
reflexive realism, 393, 404
reflexivity, 5, 25–6, 29, 290–91, 327, 392, 529
rehearsal of presentations, 170 Reiner, R., 40–1
relational ethics, 153–4
relationships, 507–10
see also rapport relevance
in longitudinal research, 307, 313–14
scientific relevancy, 143–4 reliability, in quantitative approach, 96 repeat crime rates, 233
research associates, 279–81, 389, 398, 460–61,
509–10
research design, 48–58, 529
longitudinal research, 300–305 mixed methods designs, 119–24 survey research, 209–16, 217
research ethics, 28–9, 54–7, 107, 529
committees and approval, 107, 150–1,
389, 396–7
consequentialist ethics, 148–50
and covert research, 389, 425–6
disclosure of crimes, 396, 398, 399
and ethnography, 389, 396–7, 399, 403, 404
and evaluation research, 263–4, 508–10
guidelines, 56, 57, 107, 150–2, 201
and human trafficking research, 348, 350–52
in online research, 403, 404, 425–6
and relationships, 509–10
and sensitive research, 152, 207, 350 situational and relational, 153–4
and use of images, 171 virtuous researchers, 152–3
Research Ethics Boards (REBs), 150–1 research excellence, 152
research funding, 27, 144, 145–8, 151–2, 506
research impact, 10–11, 334
research literature see literature reviews research objectives/purpose, 7–8, 43–4, 122,
167–8, 503, 529
research participants online, 420–27
see also ‘hard to reach’ groups; rapport; trust; vulnerable populations
research presentation see presentation of research research problems see research topic
research proposals, 22–4, 58–60,
273–4, 275, 529–30
research questions, 7, 41–4, 71, 85, 95, 130,
209–10, 530
research setting, 388–9
research strategies, 94–5
research teams, 279–80
research topic, 3, 7, 39–41, 172 researchers
policing of, 144–5, 151
and relationships, 509
virtuous, 152–3
voice of, 26–7, 85, 86, 166
well-being of, 351–52
see also rapport; research associates; trust restorative justice, 487–9
retrospective design, 302–5, 530
Richards, M., 201
riots, 101, 486, 487
risk assessment see offender risk assessment risk reduction, 151, 396
Robinson, D., 126
Rock, P., 184
Roulston, K., 100
Roux, N., 458
Sá enz, S., 490–1
safety, 396
sample size, 52, 53, 422 samples and sampling, 52–4
in longitudinal research, 311–12 in online research, 418, 422–3
sample surveys, 18
in sensitive research, 217–18, 219–20, 328
sampling error, 467, 530
sampling strategies, 53–4
Sampson, R. J., 308, 310
Sandberg, S., 397
Sarnecki, J., 297, 302–5
saturation, 284
Scannell, Peter, 372–3
Schneider, C. J., 419
Schumann, K., 143–4
scientific relevancy, 143–4
scoping reviews, 106
Scott, D., 137
search engines, 81, 415, 417–18
secondary analysis, 14–18, 48–52, 106, 274 examples see crime drop; history of victims see also documentary analysis
secondary data, 14–18, 274, 530
access to, 52
online see online sources
in study of historical victims, 181–83, 184, 192–3
see also victimization surveys
security
and drop in burglary, 238–40, 242–3 and drop in car theft, 234–8, 242 and drop in violence, 240–1
Security Impact Assessment Tool (SIAT), 236 Security Protection Factor (SPF), 236–7, 239
Segrave, M., 341
seldom heard see ‘hard to reach’ groups
self-inflicted deaths (SIDs), 138, 148–50, 156, 530
self-selecting samples, 54
Sellin, T., 302
semi-structured interviews, 100, 278–9, 322,
349–54, 400, 530
semiotics, 443, 530
sensitive research, 530
and confidentiality, 207, 216, 217
defining, 200–202
and ethics, 152, 207, 350
and surveys, 200, 205–6
CSEW approach, 206–8
examples, 216–21
questions, 209–16, 217, 220 with vulnerable groups, 208–9
see also child sexual abuse research; victims of state violence
sentencing, 256
sequence question, 120–2 sequencing of life events, 303
sequential mixed methods design, 121–2
Serious Offenders, 371
Serrano, A., 440
sex offender research, 101–2, 214–15,
218–21, 424
sex trafficking, 342, 345
sexual abuse see child sexual abuse research sexual violence research, 99, 106
Shaw, C., 365–6, 374
Shinn, E., 441
Shore, H., 177
SIAT (Security Impact Assessment Tool), 236 SIDs see self-inflicted deaths
Sillince, J. A., 418–19
simultaneous mixed methods design, 120 situational ethics, 153–4
SLCP (Stockholm Life-Course Project),
302–5, 315
‘smash ‘n’ grab’ surveys, 205
snowball sampling see chain referral sampling social activity, research as, 26
social meaning, 275
social media, 418
The Sociological Imagination (Mills), 22–3 sociology, 394–5
Song, J., 464–6
sources see digital sources; secondary data spatial variation, 483–5, 530
speaking out, victims of state violence, 330–1 Spencer, J., 199
SPF (Security Protection Factor), 236–7, 239
sponsors, 27, 151
see also research funding Stack, C., 485
Stake, R. E., 477
stakeholders, 27, 507–10
see also research funding Stalans, L., 219
standpoint research, 9
Stanford Prison Experiment, 149–50 Stanley, E., 321
Stanley (The Jack Roller), 365–6, 374
State, 143, 144, 147, 152
state violence see victims of state violence status (priority) question, 119–20, 122 Stockholm Life-Course Project (SLCP),
302–5, 315
storytelling, 323–4, 327, 531
Stouthamer-Loeber, M., 312
stratified samples, 53
stress management, 173
structural ethnography, 393 structure of dissertations, 163–5 structured interviews, 19, 322, 531
student plagiarism research, 479–81, 481, 482,
483, 484
subject-specific guides, 81
substantive literature, 70
Sudman, S., 213
suicide, 138, 146, 154, 531summarising oral presentations, 172 summative evaluations, 505, 531
supervision, 57, 351, 352
survey questionnaires, 51, 98–100, 205–6,
217–21, 531
survey questions, 98–9, 209–16, 217, 220
survey research, 18–19, 98–100, 203–4, 531
criticisms of, 100, 204–6
online, 423–4
and sensitive research, 198, 205–6
CSEW approach, 206–8
examples, 216–21
questions, 209–16, 217, 220
with vulnerable groups, 19, 200, 208–9,
217–18
victimization surveys, 206–8, 232–4, 245, 466–7
see also Crime Survey for England and Wales symbolic interactionism, 167, 305, 374, 531
symbols, 446, 447
synchronic, 484, 531
synchronous interviews, 421
systematic literature reviews, 37–8, 45, 75–9,
106, 531
and analysis, 276, 277
systematic samples, 53
tagging, 191, 192, 531
Tashakkori, A., 124–5, 128, 129
Taylor, L., 145, 146
Teddlie, C., 124–5, 128, 129
telephone interviews, 20
temporal variation, 483–4, 532
Tewksbury, R., 68
theft see burglary; car theft thematic content analysis, 281–83
thematically structured literature reviews, 85 theoretical literature, 69–70
theory building, 285–7, 476, 477 The Third of May 1808 (Goya), 441 Thody, A., 165–8
Thomas, W. I., 364
Thompson, G., 467
Tilley, N., 229 time frames
and interviews, 329, 421
in longitudinal research, 314–15 time management, 46–7, 166, 172 timing, in oral presentations, 170 title pages, 163
tone, 168
topic see research topic Trafficking Protocol, 343–6
training set, 256, 532
transcription, 391, 532
triangulation, 97, 125, 238, 532
trust, 329–10, 398, 400, 427, 509–10
see also rapport truth, 115, 142–3
see also authenticity Tseloni, A., 229
Tyldum, G., 347
Ullman, S. E., 288
ultra-realism, 167, 168
ultra-realist ethnographic networks, 404 Unraveling Juvenile Delinquency (Glueck), 310 unstructured interviews, 19, 20, 100,
322, 323–4, 327
validity, 13–14, 22, 28–9, 96, 128, 483
validity ‘trade-off ’, 13 value neutrality, 142
values, 503, 504, 506
variables, 313–14, 479, 532
victim–offender overlap, 187–8, 532victimization, children and, 217–18 victimization surveys, 19, 232–4, 245, 466–7
see also Crime Survey for England and Wales victimology, 288–9, 375–7
victims of crime
comparative research on, 462–3 concern with, 457
in criminology, 375–7 historical see history of victims
importance of researching, 180–1 victims of state violence
institutional abuse
case study, 488, 489–91
interviews with access, 328–9
background, 324–6
building trust, 329–10
emotionality, 331–32
method choice, 326–7
reflections, 332–5
speaking out, 330–31
video-based interviews, 421 view from below, 153–4 vignettes, 213–16
violence
ethnographies of violent crime, 398 and gender, 377
historical victims of, 186–7, 189–90 homicide case study, 486–7
IPV case study, 487–9 security and drop in, 240–41
see also victims of state violence virtual ethnography, 403–4, 424–7, 532virtual forms of presentation, 170–1 virtual turn, 170–1
virtual worlds, 426
virtuous researchers, 152–3
visual criminology, 24–5, 532
areas within, 439–42
contextualising, 434–6
images of justice, 441–42, 447–9
images as tools, 442, 446–7
making sense of images, 442, 443–6
methods, 104–5, 170–1, 442–3, 446–7
visual ethnography, 402–3
visual forms of presentation, 170–1 visual turn, 104, 162, 170–1, 437–9, 532
voice
and relational ethics, 153–4
of researcher, 26–7, 85, 86, 166
of victims, 330–31
vulnerable populations and ethics, 56, 152
research with children, 200–202, 217–18
and surveys, 19, 200, 208–9, 217–18
see also ‘hard to reach’ groups
Wakefield, A., 67
Walby, S., 377
Walkfree Foundation, 346
Walklate, S., 377
Walters, R., 143, 144–5
Ward, K., 168–9
Waters, J., 113, 122, 123–4, 125
Weaver, W., 386
web-based content, 414
analysing, 417–20
see also online
research; online sources web-based surveys, 220, 423–4 well-being, of researchers, 351–52 Welsh, B. C., 75–7
Westmarland, N., 99
White, R., 497
Whittier, N., 286–7
Whyte, W. F., 477
Williams, M., 393–4, 426
Willis, D. G., 279–80
Wilson, M., 355
Winlow, S., 21, 390–1, 395,
396–7, 398, 404
within method triangulation, 97 Wolfgang, M. E., 302
word limits, 166–7
Working Group on Trafficking in Persons (WGTIP), 345
writing
literature reviews, 83–5
see also note taking writing conventions, 166
writing style, 26–7, 168
writing technique, practising, 173 writing up, 162–9
Yar, M., 413
Yazan, B., 476
Yin, R. K., 476–7
young people, surveys with, 19 youth justice, 103, 488, 489
Zimbardo, P., 149–50
Znaniecki, F., 364
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