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What state of the USA make up the Midwest?

Midwest – a broad collection of states sweeping westward from Ohio to Nebraska and southward from North Dakota to Kansas, including eastern Colorado

1). England of the period of reign of the Normans and Plantagenets (12-I4^th ce.)

The 12^th century was a period of reforms of Henry II Plantagenet. He introduced reforms in the domain of justice and administration. He destroyed strongholds built in the years of feudal anarchy, he limited the power of the barons in the interests of the whole feudal system.

This period was also the period when crusades [krur'seid] (крестовый поход) became popular. They were sponsored by Rome as one more way to power and influence.

The Pope of Rome sent his emissaries [’emissri] togo throughout all Europe preaching a Crusade and persuading the kings and nobles to sell their lands and take their subjects to Jerusalem to drive out the Saracens [’særasan]. They were persuaded in the name of the Roman church that whoever died in the holy war would be sure to go to heaven.

Henry II was the first king to attempt expansion on the British Isles. He invaded Ireland.

In Henry II’s reign the church was becoming increasingly strong. The church was closer to the crown than to the barons. The church supported the crown against the barons also because the latter were the rivals of the Church in land possessing. The position of the Church had been strengthened by William the Conqueror's concessions to the Pope of Rome. The Roman Catholic Church was striving to become overwhelmingly important in England as it was elsewhere in western Europe, Rome became a centre and headquarters of a powerful international organization.

Henry II appointed Thomas Becket [tomas 'bekit] as the Archbishop of Canterbury, the highest church post in England. Thomas Becket, a man of Norman descent, was the son of a wealthy merchant. Thomas Becket opposed to the King’s determination to bring criminals belonging to religious orders before the common court of justice for trial. That was why he was killed and was later proclaimed a martyr and a saint (святой), and Canterbury — a place of pilgrimage.

The 2^d Plantagenet king, Richard I (1189-1199) called Richard the Lion Heart was an enthusiastic crusader. He fought against Salah-ad-Din ['sab din] and got into captivity.

The 13^th century began under a new King, the second son of Henry II, and a third Plantagenet, John, nicknamed Lackland [’laeklaend]. He was at war with the King of France who wanted to reconquer the Anjou [a:n'd3u:] lands. The confiscation of English possessions in France meant great losses to Norman barons. It was the duty' of a feudal king to guard the vassal’s possessions, so John became unpopular. Barons criticized the king’s abuses of power; they wanted to limit his power. In 1215 feudal barons forced the “tyrannical” King John (1199-1216) to agree to a series of concessions embodied in a charter which became known as the Magna Carta ['majgna 'kcutaj. This document supported the privileges of the Church, enumerated measures and conditions that ensured the barons’ uninterrupted exploitation of their peasant holders, guarded the King’s vassals from his arbitrary taxation, cancelled the right of the King to control personal property and the personal liberty of all freemen; the towns were guaranteed their municipal liberties.

The King was forced to fix his seal to the Magna Carta in a meadow next to the river Thames at Runnymede |'rAmmi:d] between Windsor [’wmdza] and Stainer. It is said he behaved pleasantly to the nobles at the time, but as soon as he returned to his chamber he threw himself on the floor in a mad rage, because the charter was an instrument of establishing baronial oligarchy |bliga:kij and perfecting feudalism. The Magna Carta since then has become part of the English law and established the important principle that the King is not above the law.

Under Henry Ш, the son of John Lackland, the barons and bishops had grounds to protest against the way the King violated the stipulations of the h arter. The reign of Henry III was a threat to the idyllic enjoyment of the arons Runnymede achievements. The knights were also dissatisfied by continual tax-raising. So the feudal magnates met in Oxford in 1258 to work a new system of governing the state.

13 century Edward I, the son of Henry III, pursued the policy of expansion by subjugating some other countries of the British Isles. Up to that time Celts of Wales enjoyed their liberty in the mountainous regions of northern and western Wales.

The Prince of Wales was Llewellyn [lu:'elin]. When King Edward came to the throne, Llewellyn was required to swear allegiance to him. But he refused. Edward invaded Wales, killed Llewellyn in 1282. In Wales Edward built castles and Caernarfon [ka’naivan] castle was one of them.

But Wales was not subdued. In 1284 Wales became a principality governed separately. The Welsh people wanted a new Prince. It was their wish that he would be a man born in Wales and not speaking English. Just at that time the Queen gave birth to a young Prince in the castle of Caernarfon. The King showed the boy in the cradle to the Welsh people and called him the Prince of Wales, saying that he was bom in Wales and did not speak English. Since that time the ceremony of investiture of the Prince of Wales [m'vestitfa] (инвеститура, введение в должность) has always been held in Caernarfon Castle.

In 1301 King Edward I instituted the title of the Heir [еэ] Apparent (прямой наследник престола). The Heir Apparent has usually been created Prince of Wales.

Prince Charles was created Prince of Wales at Caernarfon Castle in 1969.

In 1286 Alexander III, the King of Scotland, died. He had been married to Margaret [’maigarst], King Edward’s sister. The heir to the throne was an 8 years old princess. Edward proposed that the princess should be engaged to be married to his eldest son. But the girl died.

Edward saw the advantages of the union of England and Scotland. Soon he marched through Scotland declaring it part of England, built castles to place soldiers and finally departed carrying with him the Stone of Scone ['stsun av \sku:n] on which Scottish Kings had always been crowned. It was the Scotch Holy of Holies (святая святых).

So the liberation movement started. William Wallace, a knight, headed the Scotch resistance. Later Robert Bruce [bru:s] drove the English troops away and was crowned King of Scotland. During the reign of Edward I parliament was becoming a permanently acting body. There was only one chamber at first, later, early in the 14^th century the Houses separated, the House of Lords being sacred to the highest clergy, bishops and archdeacons. The members of the House of Lords were invited by personal letters from the King. The House of Commons was summoned by sheriffs.

The 13^th century was the peak of feudalism in England. There were over towns in the 13^th century. They began to lose their semi-agrarian nature. In the rural area sheep breeding was getting popular in the eastern and northern counties, because wool was becoming a key to the economic development of the country. It was very soon discovered how much easier it could be to grow wool on the sheep backs than to grow grain. Foreign markets were open to receive English wool. Barons took advantage and seized the common land. Arable land

was enclosed for sheep pasture. The wide masses were dissatisfied with the tendecy to enclose arable lands for sheep pasture. Thomas More said that sheep were eating up people.

One more reason of discontent was the corruption of the Roman Catholic [’kaeOshk] Church. Simple village priests and John Wycliffe ['wiklif], an Oxford University professor, condemned it, spoke about the immoral practice of selling pardons, “indulgences” [m'dAldjans] (индульгенция).

These facts caused rebellions headed by Wat Tyler [wat ’tails], Jack Straw [stn:J, John Ball in 1381, who led the army of peasants to London and met the King at Mile End and acquainted him with their demands.

The 14^th century was the time when the Hundred Years War started. It was a usual medieval feudal war of conquest between England and France (1337-1453) England won during the first 20 years, then lost. In 1453 the last battle was fought and Britain was defeated in the War.

1) 2. Administrative and regional division

The United States is one single country. It is composed of 50 states. The US center is the national government in Washington, D.C. At the same time the United States is a country of several large regions. These regions are cultural rather than governmental units.

Although it is one nation the United States is made up of several distinct regions inhabited by people whose ancestors come from all parts of the world Americans are bound together by their differences as well as their similarities. They have been formed out of the history, geography, economics, literature and folkways that all parts of a region share in common.

The development, over time, of culturally distinctive regions within a country is not unique to the United States. Indeed, in some countries, regionalism has acquired political significance and has led to domestic conflict. In the United States, however, regions have remained culturally defined, to the point that there a^re no easily demarcated borders between them. For this reason, no two lists of American regions are exactly alike. One common grouping creates six region⁵ They are: "

· New England (Жаца Англия — Новая Англия), made up of the nothernmost five states along the Atlantic seaboard plus Vermont [vai’mont] and parts of New York.

· • The Middle Atlantic Region (Орта Атлантика euipi — Среднеатлантическийрегион), composed of New York, New Jersey [nju: ’d33:zi], Pennsylvania [pensil'veima], Delaware [’debwes] and Maryland.

·. The South (Онхуспк — Юг), which runs from Virginia south to Florida and then west as far as central Texas. The region also takes in West Virginia, Kentucky [ken'tAki], Tennessee [tens'si:], Arkansas [’cukansD:], Louisiana and large parts of Missouri and Oklahoma [aukls'hsums].

·. The Midwest (Орталык Батые — Средний Запад), a broad collection of states sweeping westward from Ohio to Nebraska and southward from North Dakota to Kansas [’kaenzas], including eastern Colorado.

· The Southwest (Оцтустж-Батыс — Юго-Запад), made up of western Texas, portions of Oklahoma, New Mexico ['nju: ’meksikou], Arizona [агп'гэипэ], Nevada [na'vaida] and the southern interior area of California.

· The West (Батые — Запад), comprising Colorado, Wyoming [wai’aumiq], Montana [mon'taena], Utah [’ju:ta:], California, Nevada, Idaho ['aiddhau], Oregon, Washington [’wDjiqtan], Alaska and Hawaii.

Defining the six main regions of the United States does not fully explain American regionalism. Within the main regions are several kinds of subregions. One type of subregion takes a river valley as its center. Thus, historians and geographers often write of the Mississippi Valley, the Ohio Valley or the Sacramento [saekra'mentau] Valley. A second type of region is centered around mountain areas such as the Blue Ridge country [Ъ!и: 'псЭД (Аппалачи таундагы Кекше жотасы — Голубой хребет в Аппалачах) of Virginia or the Ozark [’auzaik] country of Arkansas and Missouri.

On every coin issued by the government of the United States are found three words in Latin: E pluribus Unum. In English this phrase means “out of many, one.” The phrase is an American motto. Its presence on coins is meant to •ndicate that the United States is one country made up of many parts.

On one level of meaning, the “parts” are the 50 states that march across the North American continent and extend to Alaska in the north and Hawaii in the mid-Pacific. On another level, the “parts” are the nation’s many different Peoples, whose ancestors came from almost every area of the globe. On a third ‘evel, the “parts” are the environments or geographical surroundings of the united States. These environments range from the rolling countryside of the Penobscot [pe'robskDt] River Valley in central Maine [mein] to the snowcapped Peaks of the Cascade Mountains in western Washington state and from the Palm-fringedbeaches of southern Florida to the many-colored deserts of Arizona.

3.Characterize mountains of the UK

Mountains The island of Great Britain is quite distinctly divided into 2 parts: mountainous ['mauntinas] north and west and lowland south and east. The relief map of Britain shows that its land mass is generally high in the north: it dopes down (опускаться наклонно) to the lowlands, low plateaus ['plaetau] and sandy plains of the southern part.

The highest mountain territories are located in the north of Scotland. The trend is slope down from north-west to south-west. In Scotland a large valley — the Central Lowlands, divides mountains into the Northern Uplands and the Southern Uplands. The narrow valley of Glen Mor divides the Northern Uplands into the north-west Highlands and the Grampians [’grampian] where the highest point of the British Isles Ben Nevis [ben’neivis] (1343) is located.

From the Southern Uplands of Scotland the mountains stretch to Wales is Peninsular. To the south of the deeply inlanded Solway Firth Gulf, along the western coast runs the mountain range of Cumberland ['kAmhatand] (Cumbrian mountains). To the east of this massif lies the broad '-central upland called the Pennines [’penain] — the backbone of Britain,

stretching up to the river basin of the Trent [trent] verging on the English Midlands. The Pennines stretch for about 900 km.

in the north the Pennines region is joined to the southern Uplands of Scotland by the Cheviot Hills a mass of granite and old redstone.

1) 1. England of the period of reign of Yorks, Lancasters and Tudors [’tjutda] (15-16'^h centuries)

In 1455 two years after the end of the Hundred Years War the War of the Roses started. The 2 hostile groups were the Yorkists [']э:krst.sj and Lancastrians with the white rose and the red rose in their coat of arms. The War finished in 1485 and Henry VII Tudor became the king. He disbanded the troops of the remaining nobles, destroyed their castles and made their lands his royal possession. England entered a new stage of absolute royal power and became a powerful centralized state. That is why we may say that the civil War of Roses was the last eruption of feudal anarchy before absolutism was established.

Henry VII wanted to guarantee the durability of the dynasty he founded. In 1487-88 he passed the law of high treason according to which those nobles who persisted in resisting his absolute power were to be accused of high treason, A special court to deal with such cases, with the cases involving state security, the security of dynasty, was called Star Chamber [ste'tfcimba].

The second Tudor monarch, Henry VIII idea was to consolidate his position as absolute sovereign. He gave more importance to his Privy Council ['privi kctunsl] (Тайный совет), the Parliament was his obedient tool, but there was also the Papacy — the medieval international religious

monopolist.

Henry VI1I broke up with Rome and announced himself Head of the Church the got the Parliament to adopt “The Act of Supremacy” (Акт о Cупрематии) which repudiated (отказываться признать) papal supremacy.

The Anglican Church was in a position of subordination to the crown though it became the established state church. During the Reformation the monasteries were suppressed and their lands confiscated. The secularization [’sekjabrai'zeijn] (обращение церковной и монастырской собственности в собственность светскую) of monastery lands was welcomed by nobles and bourgeoisie [buajwcn'zi:] and all those to whom the crown sold the lands. So the Reformation was the expression of the bourgeoisie’s social protest.

According to the Act of Supremacy, the king became head of the Church. The Anglican Church became the state church and the Anglican faith became an important mainstay of absolution.

The Tudor government and lords lived in constant fear of expropriated peasants. The peasants tried both economic and revolutionary methods in their struggle for the land. The peasant uprisings were in 1536, 1537, 1549. The peasants broke down enclosures and slaughtered sheep. They demanded that the common lands should be returned and enclosures prohibited- The former peasants were reduced to the position of homeless and defenseless vagabonds. The enclosures led to rural depopulation.

In 1553 Mary Tudor (1516-1558) ascended the throne. She was a Catholic. Catholicism was almost restored, the breach with the Roman Pope made up (which happened during the reign of Henry VIII who obtained the divorce without the permission of Rome). In her reign Protestants were cruelly persecuted and sent to the stake to be burnt. That was why she got the name of Bloody Mary and died hated in 1558. She left the country’ in a bad plight, with finances frustrated, naval power inferior to that of Spain. After her death Elizabeth I ascended the throne (1588-1603). Her claim to the throne was supported by the protestant part of England, the catholic part considered Mary Stuart f'stjuiat] the legitimate heiress j'earis]. For Elizabeth Catholicism [ks'folisizm] meant the hateful supremacy of Spain supported by Rome. War against Spain was in the air. The Spanish fleet was called the Invincible

Armada [xn'vmsabl ar'maida].

Queen Elizabeth surrounded herself with a brilliant constellation of statesmen, seafarers and warriors. A powerful fleet became a must, so Elizabeth promised herself to attend to the shift of England to the position of the country with marine superiority. In 1588 the Spaniards attempted an invasion placing great hopes on their Invincible Armada and on the weakness of the English fleet. But the English businessmen had made it their business to strengthen the fleet, the newly built English ships were led by the patriotic navigators Drake [dreik], Hawkins [hD.’kinz], who applied the new tactics. The sea power of Spain was gravely undermined.

England of the end of the 16^th century was emerging as a nation with new strength and resourcefulness characteristic of the growing bourgeoisie. This period also showed the first signs of struggle between absolute monarchy on the one hand and the new nobles and bourgeoisie on the other.

This wasalso the time when under the influence of radical changes in the basis of English society, radical changes occurred in the spiritual life of the newly-arising nation and the new-born culture. This process is called the English Renaissance [rxneissns].

2. Political parties

When members of a political party form a majority in Congress, they have great powers to decide what kinds of laws will be passed. With exceptions, presidents tend to appoint members of their party or supporters of the views of their party to executive branch positions, including those of secretaries (heads of federal executive agencies) within the presidential cabinet.

Today, the United States has two major political parties. One is the Democratic party, which evolved out of Thomas Jefferson’s party, formed before 1800. The other is the Republican party, which was formed in the 1850s, by people in the states of the North and West, such as Abraham Lincoln, who wanted the government to prevent the expansion of slavery into new states then being admitted to the union.

Most Americans today consider the Democratic party the more liberal party. By that they mean that Democrats believe the federal government and the state governments should be active in providing social and economic programs for those who need them, such as the poor, the unemployed or students who need money to go to college. The Democrats earned that reputation in the 1930s when there was a worldwide economic depression. Under President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s “New Deal” plan, Democrats set up government programs that provided paid employment for people building dams and roads and public buildings. The government under the Democratic party established many other programs, including Social Security, which ensures that those who are retired or disabled receive monthly payments from the government. Labor unions also received active government, and Democratic party, support in the New Deal era. Republicans are not necessarily opposed to such programs. They believe, however, that many social programs are too costly to the taxpayers and that when taxes are raised to pay for such programs, everyone is hurt. They place more emphasis on private enterprise and often accuse the Democrats of making the government too expensive and of creating too many laws that harm individual initiative. For that reason, Americans tend to think of the Republican party as more conservative.

Both major parties have supporters among a wide variety of Americans and embrace a wide range of political viewpoints.

There are other, smaller parties in the United States besides the two major parties. None of these smaller parties has enough popular support to win presidential election, but some are very strong in certain cities and states and can have their own state or city candidates elected or can determine which major party wins by supporting one or the other.

Among the political parties in the United States is a Communist party and other Marxist Socialist parties. Most Americans do not like, the ideas represented by the Communist party and distrust communism in general. The fact that the party exists, seeks to attract supporters and participates freely in elections, however, is considered evidence that there are no exceptions to the freedoms and rights guaranteed in the Bill of Rights.

. Electoral system

Americans do not have to join a political party in order to vote or to be a candidate for a public office. Many voters become members of a party because they feel strongly about the party goals or want a voice in selecting its candidates. Whether or not they belong to a party, voters may cast ballots for any candidate they wish. Everyone votes in secret, and no one can know how another person votes or force him to vote for any particular program or candidate. One concern many Americans have about their political system is the high cost of campaigning for public office. These costs have risen sharply in recent years, in part because most candidates, in order to reach a large number of voters, buy advertising time on television. In 1990, the average winning candidate for election to the House of Representatives spent $406,000— more than four times the average spent in 1976. People are concerned because much of the money to fund political campaigns comes from organized interest groups rather than individuals. Many Americans question whether, after election, these officials will feel more beholden to the groups which gave them money than to the people they represent.There are some democratic changes. In the early 1800s, President Thomas Jefferson began shaking hands with people he met, no matter who they were. He did this because he believed the old European custom of bowing was undemocratic. Americans have been shaking hands as a way of greeting ever since.There have been many highly important changes brought about in citizens lives because of Americans' demands for a better life.Nowadays American citizens can vote at age 18.

1) #7. England of the Period of the Bourgeois Revolution and the Civil War

The 17^th century was the century of the bourgeois [^fbu33wa:] revolution, of rapid change, of industrial development coming to the country's economy. England stopped being a wool-producing country only, it became a wool- processing country, it became a manufacturer of woolen cloth. It was the time vhen powerful trade companies began to appear. One of them was the first joint tock company, organized to trade with the East, the East India Company.

The first Stuart king, James I, directed persecution against the puritans who were bearers of bourgeois revolutionary ideology. Puritans vanted the Anglican [’aegghksn] Church to be purified of all remnants of Catholicism. They were calvinist protestants [kaelvimst 'pntsstsnt] dissatisfied with the incompleteness of the Reformation that took the form of Anglicanism.

Puritans wanted a “cheap” church, spoke against rich ornament and complexity of the church ritual. They dressed in practical dark clothes, didn’t wear wigs or fancy curls, they had their hair cropped closely and believed all forms of merry-making to be sinful. They were 2 most prominent sects: presbiterians [prezbi'tiarian] and independents [indi'pendsntj.

At the beginning of the Stuart reign (1603) puritanism was no more than a religious trend differing from the established church in certain details. As time went on bearers of puritanism became aware of their historical significance as a lass destined to triumph over feudalism.

Elizabeth knew and accepted the support of bourgeoisie. When she died and James I was crowned, the situation changed. When Elizabeth died James VI of Scotland, Mary Stuart’s son, succeeded her and became James I of England and the crowns of Scotland and England were united under him in 1603.

This King was not as clever as Elizabeth. Dickens [’dikmz] wrote that he was “ugly ” awkward and shuffling both in mind and in person. His tongue was too large for his mouse, his legs were too weak for his body...” In the I^st year ofis reignthere were 2 plots against him.

In 1605 Guy Fawkes ['gai 'forks], a Roman Catholic, and his fellow

conspirators attempted to blow up King James I and the Houses of Parliament, as the disagreed King’s Protestant policies.

James I neglected the interests of the growing merchant class and got a in opposition which grew during his reign and culminated in the reign of his son Charles I (1625-1649). Both the father and the son had to dissolve the Parliament.

In 1628 the Parliament opposition uniting the bourgeoisie and the gentry; made the King to sign a document limiting his power — Petition of Right. He signed this document because he needed money badly. In 1629 he dismissed the Parliament and did not summon it again during 11 years (1629-1640). He also arrested and imprisoned some of the leaders of the opposition.

In April 1640 Charles I summoned the Parliament and in 3 weeks dissolved it. It was called the Short Parliament. The situation in the country! was revolutionary'.

In November 1640 he convened the Parliament which was dismissed in 1653 and was called the Long Parliament. He wanted to vote new taxes.

So the bourgeois revolution began. Its first period, 1640-1642, led to the establishment of the constitutional monarchy — the constitutional period of the revolution.

The second period of the revolution (1642-1649) was a period of civil wars

The whole of England was divided into hostile camps. They were: the Royalist [’malist] and puritans or Roundheads [’raundhedz]. Royalists were from industrially backward areas of the north, the West and the South West. Puritans were from the industrial South and Midlands.

The Parliament army enjoyed the support of the wealthiest regions of the country, of navy Levellers who were in favour of abolition оf monarchy, of the House of Lords, aristocratic privileges; they were in favour оf making England a republic with a one-chamber Parliament elected on the basis of universal suffrage [’s/dridj] (всеобщее*

избирательное право).

By the end of 1648 the Royalists’ army was defeated, on the 30^th оf January 1649 the King was condemned to death and beheaded before a crowd of people. In February 1649 the House of Lords was abolished and England became the republic ruled by Parliament. |

In the 3^d period of the English revolution (1649-1653) the independent’, republic triumphed over the feudal absolute monarchy, the 3^d period was the period of the alliance of bourgeoisie and gentry ['djentriJ. England was to be ruled by a council of officers who established military dictatorship. O livei Cromwell [bliva ’knmwel] who was at the head of a puritans’ army was declared Lord Protector. This meant the abolition of the republic and the end о the bourgeois revolution. Cromwell as the Lord Protector did almost the same of what the King was guilty. Cromwell also dissolved the Parliament. In 1656 he was offered the crown by the Parliament. He differed from the King, for he did everything in his power to secure the ultimate victory of the bourgeoisie and gentry. The offer of the crown and of the hereditary title were signs of the tendency to restore monarchy. Cromwell refused to hold the crown, because the army did not want monarchy, but he did refuse the hereditary title.

... Cromwell died and in 1660 Charles II was crowned, monarchy because the nobles and the upper layers of the bourgeoisie could not do without monarchy in the face of the growing democratic movement.

The Restoration period (1660-1688) was a scene of struggle for privileged position between the feudal and bourgeois elements. Charles II did not keep his promises given before he got hold of the crown and the puritans were cruelly persecuted.

During the reign of Charles II, who was called ‘the merry monarch” the hostilities between Holland and England were resumed. New Amsterdam [aemsta'dsem] in North America was seized by the English troops and was renamed New York. In 1685 Charles II s brother James, was crowned. He was a Catholic and he appointed Catholics to the highest posts in the state. Both the parties of that period the Whigs and part of the Tories realized the necessity for a radical change in the country. So the Whig-and-Tory alliance sent an invitation to James’s son-in-law William of Orange, the Netherland ruler in 1688. In February 1689 William and Mary' were offered the throne.

This easy and comparatively bloodless change was called “ the Glorious Revolution”. In fact it was not a revolution, it was a compromise between the top layers of bourgeoisie and landed aristocracy. In the country monarchy existed, but it was no longer feudal monarchy, it was bourgeois monarchy.

In 1689 “The Bill of Rights” was adopted. It stated the main ideas of the constitutional monarchy with the legislative power in the hands of the Parliament and that the King had no right to refuse to sign the bills proposed by the Parliament.

Thus the main event of the 17^th century was the bourgeois revolution. It was the first of such magnitude on the European scale. It meant a collapse of the feudal method of production, of absolute monarchy. Since 1689 England has been a constitutional monarchy.

2. The legislative branch

The legislative branch is made, up of elected representatives from all of the states and is the only branch that can make federal laws. It consists of a Congress that is divided into two groups, called houses.

The House of Representatives comprises lawmakers who serve two-year terms. Each House member represents a district in his or her home state. The number of districts in a state is determined by a count of the population taken every 10 years. The most heavily populated have more districts and, therefore, more representatives than the smaller states, some of which have only one. In 1980s, there are 435 representatives in the United States House of Representatives.

The Senate comprises lawmakers who serve six-year terms. Each state, regardless of population, has two senators. There are 100 senators. That assures that the small states have an equal voice in one of the houses of Congress. The Senator's term of office is six years. The terms of the senators are staggered, so that only one-third of the Senate is elected every two years. That assures that there are some experienced senators in Congress after each election.

The main duty of the Congress is to make laws, including those which levy taxes that pay for the work of the federal government. A law begins as a proposal called а “bill”.

It is read, studied in committees, commented on and amended in the Senate or House chamber

in which it was introduced. It is then voted upon. If it passes, it is sent to the other house where a similar procedure occurs. Groups who try to persuade congressmen to vote for or against a bill are known as “lobbies”. When both houses of Congress pass a bill on which they agree, it is sent to the president for his signature. Only after itis signed does the bill become a law.

Both houses must approve a bill for it to become law, but the President may veto or refuse to sign it. If so, Congress reconsiders the bill. If two-thirds of the members of both houses then approve it, the bill becomes law even without the President's signature.

3 The Executive Branch

The chief executive of the United States is the president, who, together with the vice president, is elected to a four-year term. Under a Constitutional Amendment passed in 1951, a president can be elected to only two terms.

The powers of the presidency are formidable, but not without limitations. The president, as the chief formulator of public policy, often proposes legislation to Congress. The president can also veto (forbid) any bill passed by Congress. The veto can be overridden by a two-thirds vote in both the Senate and House of Representatives. As head of his political party, with ready access to the news media, the president can easily influence public opinion regarding issues and legislation that he deems vital. The president has the authority to appoint federal judges as vacancies occur, including members of the Supreme Court. All such court appointments are subject to confirmation by the Senate.

Within the executive branch, the president has broad powers to issue regulations and directives regarding the work of the federal government's many departments and agencies. He also is Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces.

The president appoints the heads and senior officials of the executive branch agencies; the large majority of federal workers, however, are selected through a non-political civil service system. The major departments of the government are headed by appointed secretaries who collectively make up the president’s cabinet. Each appointment must be confirmed by a vote of the Senate. Today these 13 departments are:

State

3. Treasury

4. Defense

5. Justice

6. Interior

7. Agriculture

8. Commerce

9. Labor

10. Health and Human Services

11. Housing and Urban Development

12. Transportation

13. Energy

14. Education

Under the Constitution, the president is primarily responsible for foreign relations with other nations. The president appoints ambassadors and other officials, subject to Senate approval, and, with the secretary of state, formulates and manages the nation’s foreign policy. The president often represents the United States abroad in consultations with other heads of state, and, through his officials, he negotiates treaties with other countries. Such treaties must be approved by a two-thirds vote of the Senate. Presidents also negotiate with other nations less formal “executive agreements” that are not subject to Senate approval.

The Executive Branch is headed by the President, who, together with the Vice President, is chosen in nationwide elections on the first Tuesday after the first Monday of November of the leap year (in every year divisible by four). The elective process for a U.S. President is unique. Americans vote for slates of presidential electors equal to the number of Senators and Representatives each state has in Congress (a total of 535 persons). The candidate with the higher number of votes in each state wins all the electoral votes of that state. The presidential candidate needs 270 electoral votes to be elected; if no candidate has a majority, the House of Representatives makes the decision. Any natural born American who is 35 years old or older and who has been 14 years a resident of the USA may be elected to this office.

The Vice President, elected from the same political party as the President in the event of the death or disability of the President, assumes the Presidency for the balance of his term. Except for the right of succession to the presidency, the vice president's only Constitutional duties are to serve as the presiding officer of the Senate; the vice president may vote in the Senate only in the event of a tie.

1) #8 Great Britain of the 18^th century

The 18 century was the period of the actual making of the British Empire. It was the period of colonial expansion. The 18^th century was the time of war against France. Between 1702 and 1712 England defeated Louis XIV and got hold of Gibraltar. The 18^th century was the time ofsystematic offensive, planned attack on the liberty and independence of those people who proved to be weaker than England. Ireland became the first colony, Scotland agreed to a union in 1707. England became Great Britain with a flag the Union Jack.

Thus the Kingdom of Great Britain was formed by the Act of Union (1707) between England and Scotland, which had been separate kingdoms since the early Middle Ages. Although a single monarch had ruled both lands from 1603, in 1707 they gained a single legislature [’ledsisleitfa] and London became the capital of the entire island.

Between 1739 and 1763, Great Britain was almost continuously at war. The British fought the French in Europe, in North America and in India.

Great Britain participated in the Seven Years’ War (1756-1763). In America the English troops occupied important Canadian [ks’nexdian] towns and in 1763 the whole of Canada ['kaensda] and all the lands in North America that used to be French possessions went to England. F.ance lost almost everything in India.

This is how the British Empire attained unprecedented dimensions.

In 1770 James Cook [’d-jeimz 'kuk], British naval officer, cartographer and explorer, famous for his 3 great voyages of exploration in the Pacific Ocean and north American coastal waters was on his way from Tahiti [ta:'hi:ti] home. But severe storms drove the ship towards the Australian [Ds'treilian] mainland. On April 28, 1770, he reached a large natural harbour which became known as Botany Bay ['bDtani ’bei]. From here he continued northwards and claimed it for Britain under the name of New South Wales.

In the same 18^th century England lost its colonies formed by puritans in Northern America. The native population of colonies in America was ruthlessly exterminated.

In the 18^th century' capitalism was developing in American colonies, but its development was crumpled by the country's colonial status. The North Americans were becoming a nation. The ruling oligarchy ['ohgarki] of the metropolis hindered the bourgeois development of the colonies.

The colonists were dissatisfied with the fact that the American industry was deliberately stunted so as not to create competition for English industry. The dissatisfaction of the colonists with the policy of the mother country resulted in 1773 in the famous “ Boston-Tea-Party” when the east India Company cargo of tea was dumped into the waters of the Boston Harbour. In 1775-1783 there was the War for independence in North America. In 1776 the Philadelphia Congress [fib'delfia] issued a Declaration of Independence. The result of the war was the creation of an independent state of the USA.

England got much wealth from its colonies. That was why finance inventions and sponsor the building of machines, roads, canals and so on. There were many inventions in the 18^th century. They were James Watt’s [w3ts] steam engine in 1783 and many other inventions.

Now England became “the workshop of the world”. Science flourished: philosopher Thomas Hobbes ['tDmss 'hobz], John Locke [bk], Adam Smith, Isaac Newton ['aizak 'nju:tan], Literature, arts also flourished.

2) Great Britain of the 19^th century

In the 19^th century England continued its wars with France. It was the period of Napoleonic Wars. In 1804 Napoleon [ns'psulian] became emperor and he wanted to add Britain to his possession. But in 1805 Admiral Nelson at the battle of Trafalgar destroyed the French and Spanish fleet andwon a brilliant victoiy.

In the 19* century England continued its colonial policy. In 1803 Delhi ['deli] was seizedby British troops. Other gains in the colonial field were in South Africa.

The 19^th century was also characterized by the workers’ movement. The introduction ofmachines left many workers unemployed. This brought the Luddite [’lAdait] movement. The aim of the Luddites was to return to the pre machine form of production. They broke machines thinking that the machines were the reason of unemployment. The Luddite movement of 1811-1812 had become a serious threat for the employers; that was why in 1812 the Parliament passed the law of capital punishment for machine-breakers.

Workers had no right to vote, they were not represented in any legislative body, they had no right to unite and so improve their lot by a united effort. In 1819 60 thousand workers met for a peaceful demonstration at Peter’s Field near Manchester [’maentfists] to demand universal suffrage. But this huge political reform demonstration was broken up, 11 people were killed by the militia and this eventgot the name of Peterloo Massacre ['piitalu: 'maesaka]. Government policies then became more moderate. In 1824 Trade Unions were legalized. Capitalism in Great Britain was attaining its age of maturity with all its signs — depressions, crises.

In 1830 the July revolution in France gave a new impetus to the movement for Parliamentary reform.

The 30s of the 19^m century was a period of the Chartist’s ['t/artist] movement, which reached its summit in 1842. The demands of Chartists were secret ballot (тайное голосование), universal suffrage for men and women, equal electoral districts, abolition of the property qualification for members of Parliament.

In 1837 Queen Victoria [viktoma] assumed the crown. She and her husband Albert [’aelbat] came to symbolize the so-called Victorian virtues: a close-kni t family life, a sense of public duty, integrity and respectability.

The Great Exhibition of 1851 symbolized the UK’s industrial supremacy. The economic boom was fostered by Britain’s intricate railway network, widespread communication using the telegraph, a surge in steamship building.In 1854 Britain in alliance with France participated in the Crimean war.

In the second half of the 19^th century Hong Kong [Ьэд'кэд] and Singapore served as centers of British trade and influence in China and South Pacific. The completion of the Suez Canal ['su:iz ks’na;l] (1869) led directly to the British protectorate over Egypt in 1882. Queen Victoria became Empress ['empris] of India in 1877, and the Boer War (1899-1902) consolidated British control of South Africa.

At the same time, at the end of the 19^th century Great Britain was beginning to lose her industrial supremacy. Germany and the USA overtook and outstripped her early in the 20^th century. Near 1913 the USA already ranked first in the output of pig iron and steel and Germany came second.

11. Great Britain of the 20^th century

In 1901 Victoria died and Edward II succeeded to the throne. In 1907 Britain, France and Russia formed the Triple Entente, which faced the Triple Alliance [a’laians] of Germany, Austria and Italy.

Britain entered World War I after Germany declared war on France and invaded Belgium ['beldjam]. Germany surrended in 1918.The Armistice ['aimistis] (прекращение военных действий) was signed in November 1918. Britain profited by the war and the redivision of the world was effected in Britain’s favour. Former German colonies in Africa and Turkish holdings in the Middle East became British mandates.

In 1916 the national liberation movement in Ireland, the Easter Rebellion, was drowned in blood. Most of Ireland became in 1922 the Irish Free state, independent of British rule. The 6 counties of Northern Ireland continued to be represented in the British Parliament. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland became the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.

In 1924-1929 British economy suffered from stagnation. This period faced an unprecedented demonstration of trade union solidarity in the form of 1926 General Strike. 1929-1931 was the period of Great Depression. The Statute of Westminster ['staetju:t av ’westminsta] (1931) established the Commonwealth of Nations ['kamanwelG sv 'neijonz], recognizing the full equality of the British dominions with Great Britain, and creating an association of independent states.

When Hitler invaded Poland ['pautand] in September 1939, Britain and France declared war, and World War II began.

In 1941 Churchill [4fa:tfil] forged the “Grand Alliance” with Joseph Stalin ['dssuzif] and Franklin Delano Roosevelt [’fraeqklm da'lAnau Ysuzavelt] to oppose the Axis Alliance of Germany, Italy and Japan.

in 1949 Britain joined other Western powers and the USA in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO j'neitau}) in order to counter the Soviet threat. The post war period was the time of the crisis of British colonial system. India and Pakistan [pa.’ki'starn] got independence in 1947, Burma [Ъэ:тз] and Ceylon [si'bn] in 1948.

In 1952 Elizabeth II succeeded to the throne.

In 1956 Egypt ['i:d3ipt] nationalized the Suez Canal.

In Northern Ireland, a civil rights movement supporting social equality for the Roman Catholic minority clashed violently with Protestant extremists. In 1969 the British government sent soldiers to keep order, and a campaign of terrorism by the Irish Republican Army (IRA) followed. Its aim was to unite Northern Ireland with the Irish Republic; the Protestant majority continued to support Northern Ireland remaining part of the UK.

In 1979 in the elections the Conservative Party' won. M. Thatcher [*0aetjb] became the first woman Prime Minister.

In 1990-s John Major continued Thatcher’s policy ties with the USA. British soldiers fought as a part of multi-national coalition in the Gulf War in 1991.

In 2003 British troops again fought as a part of the coalition in the war in Iraq [fraik].

From 2007 the Labour Party leader, Gordon Brown, was the Prime- minister.

From May 2010 the new Conservative Party leader, David Cameron, is the Prime-minister.

2. The legislative branch

The main duty of the Congress is to make laws, including those which levy taxes that pay for the work of the federal government. A law begins as a proposal called а “bill”.

It is read, studied in committees, commented on and amended in the Senate or House chamber

3. A whip is an official in a political party whose primary purpose is to ensure party discipline in a legislature. A whip's role is also to ensure that the elected representatives of their party are in attendance when important votes are taken. The usage comes from the hunting term "whipping in", i.e. preventing hounds from wandering away from the pack.

The term "whip" is also used to mean:

· the voting instructions issued to members by the whip,^[1] or

· in the UK and Ireland, a party's endorsement of a member of parliament (MP) or a Teachta Dála (TD); to "withdraw the whip" is to expel an MP or TD from his or her parliamentary party. (The elected member in question would retain his or her parliamentary seat, as an independent, i.e. not associated with any parliamentary party. However, in the Irish system, the party retains all funding and staffing resources allocated to it on behalf of that member for the duration of the parliamentary term.)

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