 |
The skeleton. Joints. Cartilages. Tendons. Ligaments. Rheumatoid arthritis
|
|
|
|
THE SKELETON
Phonetic exercise: s keleton [‘skelitn], skull [skʌ l], cranium [‘kreiniə m], frontal [‘frʌ ntl], occipital [ɔ k’sipitl], temporal [‘tempə rə l], parietal [pə ’raiitl], ethmoid [‘eθ mɔ id], lacrimal [‘læ krimə l], zygomatic [, zaigə ’mæ tik], mandible [‘mæ ndibl], maxilla [mæ k’silə ], palatine [‘pæ lə tain], vomer [‘voumə ], vertebra [‘və: tibrə ], vertebrae [‘və: tibri: ], false [fɔ: ls], limbs [limz], extremities [iks’tremitiz], upper [‘ʌ pə ], lower [‘louə ], forearm [‘fɔ: ra: m], wrist [rist], femur [‘fi: mə ], tibia [‘tibiə ], fibula [‘fibjulə ], phalange [‘fæ læ ndʒ ]
Make a report on the skeleton according to the plan below:
Definition: a rigid framework that provides structure as well as protection in humans.
Function: to provide structure as well as protection in humans
Structure: around 206 bones.
The skull or the cranium: 22 bones: 1 frontal bone, or os frontale in Latin, 1 occipital bone, or os occipitale in Latin, 2 temporal bones or ossa temporalia in Latin, 2 parietal bones, or ossa parietalia in Latin, 1 ethmoid bone, or os ethmoidale in Latin, 2 nasal bones, or ossa nasalia in Latin, 2 lacrimal bones, or ossa lacrimalia in Latin, 2 zygomatic bones, or ossa zygomatica, 1 mandible, or low jaw bone, 2 maxilla bones, or upper jaw bones, 1 vomer, 2 palatine bones, etc.
Function: to protect the brain.
Vertebral column: 33 vertebrae, the sacrum, intervertebral discs, and the coccyx; 7 cervical vertebrae, or vertebrae cervicales in Latin, 12 thorasic vertebrae, or vertebrae thoracicae, 5 lumbar vertebrae, or vertebrae lumbales, 5 sacral vertebrae in small babies, or vertebrae sacrales, 3 to 5 separate or fused vertebrae (the coccygeal vertebrae) below the sacrum.
Function: to house and protect the spinal cord in its spinal canal.
Thorax, rib cage: the sternum, or the breastbone, 12 thoracic vertebrae, 12 pairs of ribs: 7 pairs of true ribs, or costae verae in Latin, 3 pairs of false ribs, or costae spuriae in Latin, 2 pairs of floating ribs, or costae fluitantes in Latin.
Function: to protect the heart, the bronchi, the lungs, and the esophagus
2 upper limbs, or upper extremities: each upper limb: 1 shoulder, 1arm (the region between the shoulder and the elbow), 1 elbow, 1 forearm, 1 wrist, 1 hand.
Bones of the upper limb: 1 clavicle, or collarbone, 1 scapula, or shoulder blade, 1 humerus, 1 radius, 1 ulna, 8 carpal bones, 5 metacarpals, 14 phalanges.
Fingers: a thumb, an index finger, a middle finger, a ring finger, and a little finger.
2 lower limbs: each lower limb: 1 femur (thighbone), 1 tibia (shinbone), and 1 fibula.
Each foot: 7 tarsal bones, 5 metatasal bones, 14 phalanges.
Pelvis: the greater pelvis (inferior part of the abdominal cavity) and the lesser or true pelvis which provides the skeletal framework for the pelvic cavity.
|
|
|
The main parts of the pelvis: the ilium, the ischium, and the pubis.
Functions: to bear the weight of the upper body when sitting and standing; to contain and protect the pelvic and abdominopelvic inferior parts of the urinary tracts and internal reproductive organs.
The most common diseases: bone tumors, osteosarcoma, osteoarthritis, osteomyelitis, osteoporosis, osteodystrophy, etc.
JOINTS
Definition: the location at which two or more bones make contact.
Functions: first(ly), to allow movement, second(ly), to provide mechanical support.
Classification: articulations of hand, elbow joints, wrist joints, axillary articulations, sternoclavicular joints, vertebral articulations, temporomandibular joints, sacroiliac joints, hip joints, knee joints, articulations of foot
Common diseases: osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, septic arthritis, gouty arthritis, etc.
CARTILAGES
Definition: a stiff and inflexible connective tissue found in many areas in the bodies of humans, including the joints between bones, the rib cage, the ear, the nose, the elbow, the knee, the ankle, the bronchial tubes and the intervertebral discs.
Structure: specialized cells called chondrocytes.
Common diseases: chondrodystrophies, osteoarthritis, traumatic rupture, costochondritis, spinal disc herniation, benign and malignant tumors, polychondritis, etc.
TENDONS
Definition: a tough band of fibrous connective tissue.
Function: to connect muscles to bones.
Common diseases: different kinds of tendonopathies.
LIGAMENTS
Definitions: articular ligaments: fibrous tissue that connects bones to other bones. Peritoneal ligaments: a fold of peritoneum or other membranes.
Types of ligaments: knee ligaments, head and neck ligaments, pelvic ligaments, and thoracic ligaments.
RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS
Phonetic exercise: r heumatoid [’ru: m 
t 
Id], arthritis [’ 
θ raitis], chronic [‘kr nik], inflammatory [in’flæ mə tə ri], disorder [dis’ : də ], autoimmunity [, tə ui’mju: niti], autoimmune [, tə ui’mju: n], pleura ['pljuə rə ], sclera [‘skliə rə ], characterized [‘kæ rə ktə raizd], evaluation [i, væ lju’ei∫ n]], epidemiology [‘epi, di: mi’ lə d3i]
Make a report on rheumatoid arthritis according to the plan below:
Definition: a chronic, systemic inflammatory disorder that may affect many tissues and organs, but principally attacks synovial joints; a form of autoimmunity.
Symptoms, signs, clinical manifestations, clinical features: joint pains, morning stiffness, radiological changes, joint inflammation, joint swellings, diffuse inflammation in the lungs, pericardium, pleura, and sclera, etc.
Epidemiology: about 1% of the world's population; 3 cases per 10, 000 population; Onset: most frequent between the ages of 40 and 50.
Risk groups: women three times more often than men; 4 times more common in smokers than non-smokers.
Causes: still incompletely known.
Evaluation: history: a personal medical history, a family history, a medication history, an occupational history, a professional history, an inveronmental history, a surgical history, a social history, etc.
|
|
|
Physical examination: observation and palpation.
Instrumental evaluation: blood tests (especially a test called rheumatoid factor) and X-rays.
Diagnostic criteria:
· Morning stiffness of > (more than) 1 hour, most mornings for at least 6 weeks.
· Arthritis and soft-tissue swelling of > (more than) 3 of 14 joints/joint groups, present for at least 6 weeks
· Arthritis of hand joints, present for at least 6 weeks
· Symmetric arthritis, present for at least 6 weeks
· Subcutaneous nodules in specific places
· Rheumatoid factor at a level above the 95th percentile
· Radiological changes suggestive of joint erosion
Treatment: non-pharmacological treatment: physical therapy, occupational therapy and nutritional therapy, special tools to improve hard movements (e. g. special tin-openers, pens, pencils); pharmaceutica l treatment: painkillers), anti-inflammatory drugs, (steroids), disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs), joint injections, etc.
|
|
|
