 |
Industrial and Photichemical Smog
|
|
|
|
Industrial Smog. Various groups of air pollutants found in the air over cities can be classified as either industrial smog or photochemical smog. Although both types of smog are found to some degree in most urban areas, one type often predominates during at least part of the year as a result of differences in climate and major sources of air pollution.
Industrial smog consists mostly of a mixture of sulfur dioxide and SPM, including a variety of solid particles and droplets of sulfuric acid formed from some of the sulfur dioxide. These substances form a grayish haze, explaining why cities where this type of smog predominates are sometimes called gray-air cities. This type of air pollution tends to predominate during the winter (especially in the early morning) in older, heavily industrialized cities like London, Chicago, Philadelphia, St. Louis, and Pittsburgh, which typically have cold, wet winters and depend heavily on coal and oil for heating, manufacturing, and producing electric power.
Photochemical Smog: Cars + Sunlight = Tears. A combination of primary pollutants such as carbon monoxide, nitric oxide, and hydrocarbons and secondary pollutants such as nitrogen dioxide, nitric acid, ozone, hydrogen peroxide, peroxacyl nitrates (PANs), and formaldehyde, produced when some of the primary pollutants interact under the influence of sunlight, is called photochemical smog. Cities in which photochemical smog predominates usually have sunny, warm, dry climates. They are generally newer cities with few polluting industries and large numbers of motor vehicles, which are the major source of air pollution. Examples include Los Angeles, Denver, Salt Lake City (see photo on p. 317), as well as Sydney, Australia; Mexico City, Mexico; and Buenos Aires, Argentina. The worst episodes from this type of smog tend to occur in summer months between noon and 4 p.m.
The first step in the formation of photochemical smog occurs during the early morning traffic rush hours, when NO from automobiles builds up and reacts with 02 to produce N02, a yellowish-brown gas with a pungent, choking odor. This gas produces a characteristic brownish haze, explaining why cities such as Los Angeles, where photochemical smog predominates, are sometimes called brown-air cities. Then, as the sun rises, its ultraviolet rays cause a series of complex chemical reactions that produce the other components of this type of smog. The mere traces of ozone, PANs, and aldehydes that build up to their peak levels around noon and in the early afternoon on a sunny day can irritate people's eyes and respiratory tracts. During the summer months most industrial smog cities also experience photochemical smog.
Local Climate, Topography, and Smog. The frequency and severity of industrial and photochemical smog in an urban area depend on local climate and topography, density of population and industry, and major fuels used in industry and for heating and transportation. In areas with high average annual precipitation, rain and snow help cleanse the air of pollutants. Winds also help sweep pollutants away and bring in fresh air. However, hills and mountains tend to reduce the flow of air in valleys below and allow pollutant levels to build up at ground level. Buildings in cities also slow wind speed and impede dilution and removal of pollutants.
|
|
|
During the day the sun warms the air near the earth's surface. Normally, this heated air expands and rises during the day, diluting low-lying pollutants and carrying them higher into the troposphere. Air from surrounding high-pressure areas then moves down into the low-pressure area created when the hot air rises (Figure 18-7, left). This continual mixing of the air helps keep pollutants from reaching dangerous levels in the air near the ground.
But sometimes a layer of dense, cool air is trapped beneath a layer of less dense, warm air in an urban basin or valley. This is called a temperature or thermal inversion. In effect, a warm-air lid covers the region and prevents pollutants from escaping in upward-flowing air currents. Usually these inversions last for only a few hours, but sometimes they last for several days when a high-pressure air mass stalls over an area. When this happens, air pollutants at ground level accumulate to harmful and even lethal levels. Most air pollution disasters—such as those in London and in Donora, Pennsylvania, occurred during lengthy thermal inversions during fall or winter in industrial smog areas.
Thermal inversions occur more often and last longer over towns or cities located in valleys surrounded by mountains, on the leeward sides of mountain ranges, and near coasts. A city with several million people and automobiles in an area with a sunny climate, light winds, mountains on three sides, and the ocean on the other possesses the ideal conditions for photochemical smog worsened by frequent thermal inversions. This describes the Los Angeles basin, which experiences almost daily inversions, many of which are prolonged during the summer months.
Упражнение 2.
Найдите в каждом предложении 1 абзаца текста Industrial and Photichemical Smog подлежащее и сказуемое. Определите время и залог сказуемого.
Упражнение 3.
В правой колонке найдите русские эквиваленты следующих английских словосочетаний из текста Industrial and Photichemical Smog:
| 1. air pollutants 2. industrial smog 3. urban areas 4. grayish haze 5. sulfur dioxide 6. primary pollutants 7. carbon monoxide 8. photochemical smog 9. rush hour 10. major source | a. главный источник b. сероватый туман c. промышленный смог d. городские районы e. первичные загрязнители f. диоксид серы g. фотохимический смог h. час пик i. загрязнители воздуха j. угарный газ |
Упражнение 4.
(Парная работа) Составьте 10 предложений с словосочетаниями из упражнения 3.
Упражнение 5.
|
|
|
Прочитайте текст. (Контрольное время – 9 минут)
Acid deposition
One way to decrease ground-level air pollution from sulfur dioxide, SPM, and nitrogenoxides when coal and oil are burned in electric power plants, metal smelters, and other industrial plants is to discharge these emissions from smokestacks tall enough to pierce the thermal inversion layer. Use of tall smokestacks in the United States, Canada, and western Europe has led to considerable reduction of ground-level pollution in many urban areas.
This approach, however, leads to increased levels of these pollutants and various secondary pollutants in downwind rural and urban areas. As emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitric oxide are transported over long distances by wind currents, they are chemically transformed into a variety of secondary pollutants such as nitrogen dioxide, droplets of sulfuric and nitric acids, and solid particles of sulfate and nitrate salts.
These chemicals fall or are washed out of the atmosphere onto downwind land and bodies of water. Wet deposition occurs when some of the suspended droplets of sulfuric acid and nitric acid return to the earth as acid rain or its variants, consisting of these acids and snow, sleet, hail, fog, or dew. Dry deposition occurs when solid particles of sulfate and nitrate salts and gases such as sulfur dioxide fall or are washed out of the atmosphere, usually near the original pollution sources. These deposited solids can then react with water in soil and bodies of water to form sulfuric and nitric acids. The combined wet and dry deposition of acids or acid-forming substances onto the surface of the earth is known as acid deposition. This phenomenon is commonly called acid rain, but this is a misleading term because these acids and acid-forming substances are deposited not only in rain but also in snow, sleet, fog, and dew and as dry particles and gas.
The relative levels of acidity and basicity of water solutions of substances are commonly expressed in terms of pH. The lower the pH value, the higher the acidity, with each whole-number decrease in pH representing a tenfold increase in acidity. Natural precipitation has an average pH value of 5.1 (with a range of 5.0 to 5.6 depending on location), caused when carbon dioxide and traces of natural sulfur and nitrogen compounds and organic acids in the atmosphere dissolve in atmospheric water. This slight acidity of natural precipitation helps water deposited on soil to dissolve minerals for use by plants and animals. It also deposits some sulfur and nitrogen used as plant nutrients.
However, deposition of acids and acid-forming substances with higher levels of acidity (pH values of 5.0 and less) than those in natural precipitation can damage materials; leach certain nutrients from soil; and kill fish, aquatic plants, and microorganisms in lakes and streams. Acid deposition, in combination with other air pollutants such as ozone, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides, can damage trees, crops, and other plants. It can also affect human health.
Упражнение 6.
Составьте 10 вопросов к тексту Acid deposition.
Упражнение 7.
(Парная работа) Ответьте на вопросы упражнения 6.
Упражнение 8.
(Парная работа) Перескажите текст Acid deposition в объеме 10 предложений.
Упражнение 9.
Подберите определение модификаторам:
| 1. Typical 2. Efficient 3. Huge 4. Reliable 5. Virtually 6. To a certain extent 7. Thoroughly 8. Roughly 9. Outstanding 10. Widespread 11. Basically 12. Hardly any | a. Quite exceptional - you just can't class it with the others b. Almost c. A little more than nothing - but not much d. Could be more, could be less - not much precision here e. Within limits f. Completely, carefully and conscientiously g. Conforms totally to expectations - zero surprise h. The capitalist's dream - maximum work, minimum waste i. All over the place – ubiquitous in fact j. Not just big – a macro-dimension k. You can count on this – it will never let you down i. To start at the beginning or, more accurately, to go right down to the foundations |
Упражнение 10.
|
|
|
Вставьте модификаторы из упражнения 9 в предложения:
1. Farms are most … when they comprise a thousand hectares or more.
2. Although it has a … population, China has successfully reduced both fertility and mortality.
3. …, there are four types of language in Europe.
4. Historical records of earthquakes before the middle of the 18th century are not …
5. There is still … fear that genetically modified viruses might escape from the laboratory.
6. A human being requires … 3,000 calories a day.
7. Intra-species fighting can be observed in … all vertebrates.
8. Osteoporosis (thinning of the bones) is a … example of an age-related disease.
9. Military trainee pilots are very … prepared.
10. From a technological point of view, Concorde has been an … success.
11. There are … tigers left - they'll soon be extinct.
12. …, I agree with you.
Упражнение 12.
Переведите текст письменно. (Контрольное время – 20 минут)
Urban Heat Islands
In accordance with the second energy law, when energy is converted from one form to another, low-quality heat is added to the atmosphere. In the United States, energy use is so high that the average continuous heat load per person injected into the atmosphere is equivalent to that from a hundred 100-watt light bulbs.
The effect of all this atmospheric heating is evident in large cities and urban areas, which are typically like huge islands of heat surrounded by cooler suburban and rural areas, a climatic effect known as the urban heat island. This dome of heat helps trap pollutants, especially SPM, and creates a dust dome above urban areas. As a result, concentrations of SPM over urban-industrial areas may be a thousand times higher than those over rural areas. If wind speeds increase, this dust dome elongates downwind to form a dust plume that spreads the city's pollutants to rural areas and other urban areas tens to hundreds of miles away. As urban areas grow and merge into vast urban regions, the heat and dust domes from a number of cities can combine to form regional heat islands, which affect regional climates and prevent polluted air from being effectively diluted and cleansed.
Грамматический справочник
1. Употребление временных форм глагола
в действительном залоге (Active Form)
(на примере правильного глагола to ask – спрашивать)
| Инфинитив Время | Simple (to ask) | Continuous (to be asking) | Perfect (to have asked) | |
| Present | ask asks (he, she, it) | am | have | |
| is are | asking | has asked (he, she, it) | ||
| Past | asked | was were | asking | had asked |
| Future | shall (I, we) will ask | shall | he asking | shall |
| will | will have asked |
Употребление временных форм глагола
в страдательном залоге (Passive Form) to be + Participle II
(в соответствующем времени)
| Инфинитив Время | Simple (to be asked) | Continuous | Perfect (to have been asked) | |
| Present | am is asked are | am is are | being asked | have has been asked |
| Past | was 1 were J asked | was were | J" being asked | had been asked |
| Future | shall (I, we) will be asked | – | shall will have been asked |
|
|
|
Тренировочные упражнения
Упражнение 1.
Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на время и залог сказуемого.
1. Elevation differences are always introducing temperature changes.
2. Closed isotherms separate the city from the general temperature field, and this condition has become known as the «urban heat island».
3. The differences between the urban and the rural area depend on the synoptic conditions.
4. Radiation is the physical process by which energy is emitted from a source in the form of electromagnetic waves.
5. The electromagnetic waves travel along straight paths until they hit objects from which they are partly reflected and partly absorbed.
6. For large-scale processes the pressure can be regarded as a measure of the weight of the atmosphere above a given level.
7. The temperature distribution is used to classify the various layers of the atmosphere.
8. The circumstances that produce the charge separation have not been fully understood.
9. Circulation systems are produced by changes of elevation, differences between land and water, differences in thermal properties of the ground.
Упражнение 2.
Переведите предложения, учитывая видовременную форму сказуемого.
1. An observer collects snow samples once a day.
2. The field of urban climatology has grown rapidly in recent years.
3. The winds blowing back towards the equator are moving from a region of slower eastward movement into the region of fastest movement.
4. Temperatures do not vary gradually from the tropics towards the poles.
5. Upon striking the ground, the water froze.
6. Positive current will flow from the upper cloud portion to the ionosphere.
7. The vast majority of thunderstorms over the tropics produce no rain.
Упражнение 3.
Определите время и залог сказуемого. Переведите предложения.
1. The radiation from the earth's surface is с a 11 ed terrestrial radiation.
2. Many tests have been performed with wind shielding.
3. Certain limited features of global climate can be studied by physical models.
4. Synoptic weather observations are done simultaneously everywhere on earth, in intervals of 3 hours.
5. The extent of snow cover was seen in satellite pictures.
6. Microwaves are reflected by raindrops and ice crystals.
7. If burning of fossil fuels is not limited the atmosphere's carbon dioxide will be doubled some time near the middle of the 21 st century.
Упражнение 4.
Выберите правильную форму сказуемого (Active voice – Passive voice). Переведите предложения.
1. The mechanisms of air-mass modification (treat/are treated) separately.
2. Surface cooling (produces/is produced) a temperature inversion which greatly (limits/is limited) the vertical extent of the cooling,
3. The moisture (supplies/is supplied) from the underlying surface.
4. Ascent or descent of air (causes/is caused) adiabatic changes of temperature.
5. One approximate means of indirect measurement (bases/is based) on the moisture balance equation.
6. The technique (allows/is allowed) the determination of daily evapotranspiration amounts.
7. Potential evapotranspiration (calculates/is calculated) as the difference between precipitation and percolation.
8. The snow-covered source regions of these two air masses (lead/are led) to marked cooling of lower layers.
Упражнение 5.
Измените предложения из действительного в страдательный залог.
1. The atmosphere warms or cools the ocean.
2. Stratosphere absorbs energy from the incoming sunlight.
3. Interactions between land, sea, air, and ice affect the workings of the weather machine.
4. Different groups of scientists developed the General Circulation Models.
5. These models produce a variety of estimates.
6. Motor vehicles cause the air pollution.
Упражнение 6.
Переведите, обращая внимание на особенности перевода пассивных конструкции.
|
|
|
1. The modern scientific forecasts of weather can be fully relied upon.
2. Heat is radiated by the Sun to the earth, but the land, the sea, and the air are affected differently by this radiation.
3. We live at the bottom of an ocean of air, and our lives are influenced by the change and movement of this gas.
4. Single atoms of oxygen are seldom met with.
5. We were shown a number of experiments illustrating the presence of high-energy particles in the cosmic radiation.
6. The runoff from such glaciers is being utilized for different purposes, and as a consequence hydrologic investigations have been made or are being made in connection with these supplies.
7. Illinois was affected by the drought but to a lesser degree than the neighboring states.
8. The infiltration capacity is affected by antecedent precipitation.
Упражнение 7.
Переведите следующие предложения на русский язык.
1. Flood hazards are influenced by the terrain in other ways.
2. Severe floods are occasionally produced by intense rainstorms in summer.
3. Discharge measurements are made in several ways.
4. The downstream flow of a stream is checked by friction.
5. Percolation is favored by a slow, steady precipitation, pervious soil, and flat slopes.
6. The arte of percolation is also affected by the initial condition of soil.
7. The mean velocity of a stream can only be computed after the discharge itself has been ascertained.
8. Little reliance can be placed upon results obtained in this manner unless the characteristics of the two watersheds are identical.
Упражнение 8.
Поставьте глаголы-сказуемые следующих предложений
в формы времени Past, Future Indefinite, а также в форму времени Present Perfect.
1. Evaporation attracts the interest of many scientists.
2. It is difficult to assess the reliability of the method.
3. The discharge is measured twice daily.
2. Значения слова it
Местоимение it имеет разные значения и выполняет различные функции в предложении. Оно может быть:
1) личным местоимением в именительном падеже. В этом случае на русский язык оно переводится местоимениями «он», «она», «оно». Например:
Many insects use the water surface as if it were solid. Многие насекомые используют водную поверхность как будто она твердая.
2) указательным местоимением со значением «это». Например:
It is the best option.
Это лучший способ.
3) формальным подлежащим в безличных предложениях; на русский язык не переводится. Например:
a) It is cold.
а) Холодно.
b) It is necessary to research this phenomenon.
б) Необходимо исследовать это явление.
c) It is desirable that the technology be improved.
в) Желательно, чтобы технология была усовершенствована.
4) частью усилительной конструкции it is... that, перевод которой начинается словом именно. Например:
It is this method of analysis that yield ed best results.
Именно этот метод анализа дал наилучшие результаты.
3. Значения слов that и those
Слова that и those употребляются:
1. Как указательные местоимения в значении «тот», «те». Например:
That method is more reliable than the.
Тот метод надежнее, чем старый, old one.
2. Как заместители ранее упомянутых существительных.
В этом случае они часто употребляются с предлогом of и на русский язык переводятся теми существительными, которые that и those заменяют. Например:
The air over the land becomes cooler than that over the water.
Воздух над сушей становится холоднее воздуха над водой.
3. That употребляется для присоединения придаточных предложений и переводится союзным словом который. Например:
The hydrologic problems in irrigation are similar to those in water supply.
4. That употребляется для присоединения придаточных предложений и переводится союзом что. Например:
It is well known that climates may be grouped as continental, marine or coastal.
Хорошо известно, что климат бывает континентальным, морским и прибрежным.
5. That употребляется как часть усилительной конструкции It is... that. Например:
It is here, at Greenland Ranch, that a temperature of 134, the highest record in the United States was recorded.
Именно здесь, на ранчо Гринленд, была зафиксирована температура в 134, самая высокая в США.
6. That употребляется в предложениях типа It is that и necessary переводится союзом чтобы. Например:
It is necessary that all data be prepared in time.
Необходимо, чтобы все данные были подготовлены вовремя.
4. Значения слова one
Слово one может быть:
1) числительным «один». Например:
One of the most important tasks now is to determine the distribution of rain throughout the year.
Одна из самых важных задач сейчас заключается в том, чтобы определить распределение осадков в течение года.
2) заместителем ранее упомянутого существительного.
В этом случае слово one не переводится или «восстанавливается» существительное, которое one заменяет. Например:
I don't like this method, let's use an other one.
Мне не нравится этот метод, давайте используем другой (метод).
3) формальным подлежащим, если оно стоит перед глаголом в личной форме. В этом случае слово one не переводится. Например:
То construct a map one has to follow a number of more or less arbitrary rules.
Чтобы составить карту, необходимо использовать ряд более или менее произвольных правил.
Как формальное подлежащее слово one широко употребляется с модальными глаголами, где переводится следующим образом:
| i | must |
| one | has to нужно, is to необходимо |
| one | should ought to нужно |
| one | may следует можно |
Например:
One should know the difference between these two systems.
Необходимо понимать разницу между этими двумя системами.
Тренировочные упражнения
Упражнение 1.
Переведите следующие упражнения на русский язык:
1. In humid coastal areas winter temperatures are much higher than those found in the drier regions of the continental interior.
2. The process of evaporation is complex, and various factors that affect it are difficult to estimate.
3. It is obvious that the internal circulation of the ocean must be related to the oceanic structure.
4. Experience has shown that the discharge is seldom as great as that given by the equation.
5. It is the oxygen we breathe that keeps us alive.
6. If one is to make the best use of the land, the crops one grows in the different regions should be well adapted to the climates of those areas.
7. The one factor whose influence is best known and which comes nearest to accounting for the known variations of the larger kind is the one having to do with the changing surface features of the earth.
8. One should look at such empirical equation as a mathematical description of the original chart.
Упражнение 2.
Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на перевод усилительных (эмфатических) конструкций.
1. It was this project that brought this field of scientific inquiry to its present level.
2. It is physics that has given us mechanical and electrical inventions of the modern world;
3. It was only in 1840 that official records of temperature, rainfall and so on began to be kept, at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, in London.
4. Very seldom do these thunderstorms contain hail.
5. The results of this study did show the crossover effect on frequent occasions.
6. It is by radiation that the earth receives its heat from the sun.
7. It is the weight of air that gives rise to atmospheric pressure.
Упражнение 3.
Переведите предложения, учитывая различные значения it.
1. It is possible to observe sunrise and sunsets on Mars just as on the Earth.
2. The summer temperature at the equator of Mars is about 25° С and in winter, at the poles, * to 100° C.
3. It seems quite certain that in the nearest future, man's action will be able to influence future climate.
4. High above the ground this wind blows so strongly that it is called the jet stream.
5. It is seen from the definition.of relative humidity that it can be increased either by adding more water vapour or decreasing the «saturation specific humidity».
Упражнение 4.
Переведите, обращая внимание на различные значения that.
1. Chemists tell us that, out of 100 parts of atmospheric air, 99,5 consist of oxygen and nitrogen.
2. The lunar day is 24 hours and 50 minutes. That is, the moon passes a given location on earth once in that period of time.
3. The weight of the atmosphere is equal to that of a solid globe of lead sixty miles in diameter.
4. The atmosphere feeds the flame of life exactly as it does that of the fire.
5. Air density, typically of the order of 1/1000 of that of water near the ground is almost never.
Упражнение 5.
Переведите на русский язык следующие предложения, в которых используются местоимения that, one в функции заместителей имени существительного.
1. Runoff expressed in inches was not large when compared with that in the humid eastern regions.
2. The rivers most prone to flooding are those flowing over flat, glacial lake beds.
3. The greatest flood on record is that of 1881.
4. The friction due to ice cover is very much greater that that due to air.
5. Other large and important artesian wells are those on the eastern slope of the Appalachian Mountains.
6. This lake and the one mentioned above have been badly polluted by acid rains.
7. Floats may be classed as surface and subsurface ones.
Упражнение 6.
Переведите следующие предложения, обращая на способы перевода местоимения it.
1. First of all it was necessary to collect as many precipitation data as possible.
2. It is clear that flood protection measures should be given due attention.
3. Water is evaporated from the earth’s surface into the atmosphere where it is stored from some time.
4. It is difficult to say which one of these three flows is the most important.
5. Thus it is seen that the limitation by the plants and the soil on the evaporation often extends the true evaporating surface.
6. It seems, in the final analysis, that the evaporation from land surfaces can become as involved as an investigator wishes to make it.
Упражнение 7.
Переведите предложения, уделяя внимание усилительной конструкции.
1. It is this factor that affects surface runoff most of all.
2. It is by evaporation that moisture is returned to the air.
3. It appears that it is the flow of heat to the surface rather than the vapour flow that is the rate-limiting factor for evaporation.
4. It is only by changing the moisture entering the air over land that the total moisture received by the air can be changed, as runoff reaching the ocean does not essentially affect its evaporating area or rate of evaporation.
5. It was not until the 20-th century that the world network of hydrologic observatories was set up.
Упражнение 8.
Переведите предложения на русский язык.
1. New springs may also be created or old ones permanently altered.
2. One of the common processes in the weathering of rocks is hydration.
3. In connection with what was said above, one may make a few remarks regarding the notation of “storage coefficient”.
Упражнение 9.
Переведите, обращая внимание на различные значения that.
1. Meteorologists and atmospheric scientists often say that climate is what you expect; weather is what you get.
2. Although dynamical systems, like Earth's climate system, are full of complicated processes that lead to chaotic variations, changes to external forcing of the system can lead to significant changes.
3. Some gases, like carbon dioxide, have molecular structure that allows the absorption of certain wavelengths of light. In the case of "greenhouse gases," that means absorbing infrared radiation.
4. The distinguishing characteristic of a greenhouse gas is that it absorbs infrared radiation better than it does visible radiation; this allows sunlight to penetrate through the gas (the atmosphere) and warm Earth's surface.
5. The ever-increasing tendency away from regular day-night cycles of work, play and sleep means that at night, the time when our Earth should be shedding its excess heat, we are still adding to it.
6. That means that most of the energy from the cooling will still end up where it would during the day: either absorbed in the troposphere or emitted to space.
7. Also, the argument seems to imply that increased nocturnal activity by humans makes the cooling less efficient, but it is an extremely small effect.
8. Physical and computer models built to predict climate change are based on evidence gathered from glacial geologists and quaternary geologists, that infer, with varying degrees of precision, the Earth's climate history.
9. The equations of motion are the same fundamental equations that govern all classical fluid dynamics, much of energy transfer is based on well-known principles of radiative transfer and nuclear physics and spectrometry, and a lot of observations are based on geological, chemical and biological processes and methods.
10. Much of the interest in studying climate change is motivated by the idea that human activity has changed and will continue to change the climate.
11. In the absence of an atmosphere, Earth would look a lot like a black body radiator; that is to say, the sun would shine on Earth, which would warm to an equilibrium temperature, and then a balance would be struck.
12. Mostly due to the fact that Earth is so small and intercepts so little of the total energy emitted from the sun, that radiative equilibrium temperature is much lower than the sun's temperature.
13. This process, whereby energy that is emitted from the surface is absorbed by the atmosphere which then emits energy back toward the surface, is called the greenhouse effect, and it is one of the basic feedback processes in the climate system.
14. The energy flux incident at the Earth is the solar constant, but notice that the solar flux would not fall evenly on the surface of the planet.
15. The light that reaches the sun arrives over a broad range of frequencies, but the peak frequencies are in the visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.
16. Kepler showed that orbits are ellipses, rather than perfect circles.
Упражнение 10.
Переведите, обращая внимание на различные значения that.
1. That is to say, where the sun shines has a direct impact on weather and climate.
2. The principle is simply that the curvature of the Earth means that the same radiance (or photon flux or sunshine) gets spread over a larger area as the angle between the photons and the normal to the surface increases from zero to 90 degrees at the poles.
3. From everyday experience, we know that the sun appears at different distances above the horizon over the course of the day.
4. Define a new angle, that between Earth's equator and the highest local position of the sun (the position at local noon), and call this the declination angle; it is essentially a measure of the height above the horizon that the sun will reach each day, and is equal to the latitude at which the sun is directly overhead at noon.
5. This includes not-so-distant climates, like that of the "little ice age," and also the global-scale oscillations known as ice ages.
6. Note that the science of climate prediction differs fundamentally from that of weather prediction.
7. First of all, we restrict ourselves to numerical models, specifically those designed to be solved with computers.
8. More generally, any equation or set of equations that represents the climate system is a climate model. Some of these can be solved analytically, but those are highly simplified models, which are sometimes incorporated in numerical models.
9. Those sediments are deposited downstream, and over time they are compacted and form sedimentary rocks.
10. Those combining planetary science with geologic evidence have significant findings suggesting that our present inter-glacial period has not peaked.
11. While the case of Earth's climate is unlikely to be that sensitive, it does mean that we shouldn't expect a perfect long-term (greater than 2 weeks) weather forecast to be on the local television station any time soon (or ever).
12. That interaction between photons and molecules increases the temperature of the atmosphere, which then emits at a slightly different wavelength.
13. We know that the atmosphere consists primarily of the gaseous envelop around Earth, and that pressure decreases with height, according to they hydrostatic approximation.
14. The amount that is radiated to space (which differs from that emitted by the surface because of the greenhouse effect) is often called outgoing longwave radiation (OLR).
15. Various atmospheric constituents absorb infrared energy, then emit at a wavelength commensurate with the temperature of that part of the atmosphere.
Упражнение 11.
Переведите, обращая внимание на различные значения that.
1. Here we discuss several classes of models, with an emphasis on atmospheric models. The discussion closely follows that of Henderson-Sellers and McGuffie (1987), which is an excellent resource on the subject (and has an updated edition).
2. One of the most interesting aspects of these simple models is that they already produce multiple equilibria, having solutions for ice-free and ice-covered Earths as well as a more temperate solution (like the current climate).
3. Given constant boundary conditions, the model will equilibrate such that the energy budget is balanced, giving a model of the vertical (especially temperature) structure of the atmosphere.
4. Given particular conditions, it is expected that the sea ice in the North Pole region will completely melt in the summer.
5. The Earth's surface obtains energy from four primary sources: space (predominantly solar radiation), the molten core of the Earth, anthropogenic processes that generate excess heat, and radiation from the atmosphere.
Упражнение 12.
Переведите следующие предложения, обращая внимание на способы перевода местоимения it.
1. Climate is a broad term, but it always describes a long-term average of a system.
2. All planets with rotational days unequal to their orbital years absorb their sun's heat during their day and release it at night.
3. This is all to say that climate science is a multi-disciplinary field, with diverse (even disparate at times) interests and applications. It is unified only by the end goal: to understand the physical processes governing our natural world.
4. The emission from the atmosphere goes both out to space and downward, back to the ground where it is absorbed by the surface. It increases the surface temperature on Earth from the radiative equilibrium temperature to a much more life-friendly temperature.
5. Nearly all the energy impacting Earth's climate comes from the sun, even if it is sometimes indirectly.
6. This section should make it clear that the geometry of the Sun-Earth system plays a key role in how much sunlight reaches Earth and where it arrives.
7. First consider conservation of energy in an equilibrium system. This could be a tank of water with a heating lamp above it all enclosed in a box. It could be a simple blackbody system, or any isolated system.
8. What happens to incoming solar radiation when it arrives in the atmosphere?
9. The photon can continue unimpeded, ultimately reaching the surface and being absorbed or reflected; while the photon is traveling through a medium without interacting, it is said to be transmitted.
10. It is impossible to enumerate and describe every climate model that has ever been developed; even doing so for the published literature would be prohibitively difficult.
Упражнение 13.
Переведите следующие предложения, обращая внимание на способы перевода местоимения it.
1. It should also be noted that the shortwave light reflected by the surface does have a chance of being reflected (by clouds or particulate matter) or absorbed by atmospheric constituents.
2. It is the presence of the atmosphere – because of its ability to absorb the emitted infrared radiation – that the surface temperature is a much more comfortable temperature.
3. What is it that allows the atmosphere to absorb infrared radiation, and for that matter, why is it so transparent to visible radiation?
4. When the model is used to approximate the equations of motion on a sphere, it can be called a general circulation model (GCM).
5. Before starting to describe the uncertainty associated with climate models, it is important to emphasize that climate models are the best tools currently available for studying the climate of Earth and other planets.
6. In fact, in chaotic systems it has been shown that arbitrarily small errors in the initial conditions can give wildly different results after some amount of time.
7. It has been shown that the globally averaged surface temperature is now warmer than it has been for at least 150 years.
8. Earth is now absorbing 0.85±0.15 W m-2 more energy from the Sun than it is emitting to space.
9. While it is nice to think that changing our energy consumption habits will stop global warming, it could very well be that climate change is being driven by processes that we have little control over.
10. Liquid water gets deep into the ice sheet, lubricating and destabilizing it, and huge discharges of ice spill into the north Atlantic.
Конверсия
Конверсия – это способ образования одной части речи от другой без добавления суффиксов и приставок и без изменения основной формы слова. Например:
| Глагол | Существительное |
| to use – использовать | use – использование |
| to increase – увеличивать | |
| to produce – производить | produce – продукты, изделия |
| to effect – влиять |
Тренировочные упражнения
Упражнение 1.
Определите, к какой части речи принадлежат выделенные слова. Переведите предложения.
1. A slight rise in the grass-surface temperature can be noted at 2020 hr.
2. As the temperature of the air in the bulb rises air expands and the liquid in the stem falls, whereas it rises as the temperature falls.
3. Most of the troposphere is filled with west winds which increase with height.
4. This increase is consistent with the «thermal» wind equation, since temperatures decrease poleward from the equator.
5. The pressure decreases with height.
6. The decrease with height depends primarily on temperature.
7. The temperature changes caused by radiatively active pollutants remain a minor factor in the development of vertical temperature structure.
8. As the temperature of both glass and mercury changes, their volumes change.
9. The barometer drops rapidly as the storm approaches.
10. The approach of the storm can be determined by the drops of the barometer.
11. Weather conditions affect pollutant concentrations and there are some effects of pollutants on weather.
Упражнение 2.
Определите, к какой части речи принадлежат выделенные слова. Переведите предложения.
1. Often 'climate' is used to mean the long-term mean state of the atmosphere, including temperature, humidity, and wind.
2. Anthropogenic means "human caused," form "anthro-", meaning "human," and "genic," meaning "produced by, origin, cause".
3. Global warming, or anthropogenic global warming, is the difference in the global mean temperature in a world with artificially elevated carbon dioxide compared to a reference state (which is usually taken as a time before the Industrial Revolution).
4. When the trend leads to a change larger than the natural variability,
a statistically significant change most certainly has occurred.
5. More energy leads directly to higher temperature, hence climate change.
6. The absorption and subsequent emission by greenhouse gases changes the effective emission temperature of Earth (as seen from space).
7. Earth's obliquity slowly changes in time, which has important consequences for very long-term climate change.
8. Seasons are more extreme with larger obliquity, and high latitudes (e.g. Antarctica) experience more extreme changes in insolation than the tropics, leading to more pronounced season.
9. Consider the change in incoming energy in say 6800 km versus the Earth-sun distance: it is minuscule.
10. Perhaps the most profound influence on the Earth-Sun system is the geometry involved.
11. This difference does not cause Earth's seasons, but can influence the severity of seasons (discussed in the paleoclimate section) and does introduce small variations to the annual incoming solar radiation ("insolation") as there are very slow variations in the eccentricity.
12. In addition to the findings about the complex interplay between atmosphere and ocean, the current climate models from the Max Planck Institute for Meteorology also include new findings about the effects of aerosols and the influence of the earth's carbon cycle.
13. In an idealized system, where the orbit is circular and the planet's spin axis is perpendicular to the ecliptic (i.e. obliquity equal to zero), the problem becomes nearly trivial because every day is identical.
14. The amount of light absorbed by the surface is not exactly equal to the transmitted light.
15. Of course, only half the planet faces the sun at any instant in time. Half the planet faces the sun, half is in darkness.
16. The outgoing longwave radiation balances the net shortwave at the top of the atmosphere when the system is in equilibrium.
17. The photons (electromagnetic energy) emitted from the sun reach Earth's orbit in about 8 minutes.
18. Snow and ice reflect up to 80% of incident light, while open ocean surfaces reflect almost none.
19. The climate system contains important contributions and interactions among the lithosphere (the solid Earth), the biosphere (e.g., marine phytoplankton, tropical rainforests), atmospheric and oceanic chemistry (e.g., stratospheric ozone), and even molecular dynamics (e.g. radiative transfer).
20. The horizontal transport is typically given by an eddy diffusion term, which is just a coefficient multiplied by the meridional (north-south) temperature gradient.
21. For the contemporary climate, the precession only matters because it determines the relative position of the poles to the sun during Earth's orbit.
22. Extreme weather events in Europe will increase in frequency and strength.
23. Increases in precipitation over Greenland, combined with other warming effects there, leads to pools of liquid water that melt into the ice sheet as moulins.
24. The data and results will be made available, in particular, to research groups that deal with the effects of climate.
25. Different climate models, and here we want to imply sophisticated numerical models (usually of the whole globle), get different results for the same experiment.
6. Существительное в функции определения
Если подряд стоят два или более существительных без предлогов, образуя так называемую «цепочку существительных», то все они являются определениями к последнему в этой «цепочке» существительному. При переводе на русский язык существительному в функции определения может соответствовать:
– либо прилагательное (sea salt – морская соль, topmost layers – верхние слои);
– либо существительное в родительном падеже (water surface – поверхность воды, climate changes – изменения климата);
– либо существительное с предлогом (rainfall information – сведения об осадках).
Тренировочные упражнения
Упражнение 1.
Переведите следующие словосочетания на русский язык:
Boundary layer effects, low salinity water surface, regime shifts, acid rains, insect larvae, water life, sulphur dioxide, evaporation rates, precipitation data.
Упражнение 2.
Переведите словосочетания, учитывая правило «цепочки существительных».
1. Vapour pressure..., saturation vapour pressure...; 2. Water particles..., water particles attraction...; 3. Temperature drop..., temperature drop increase...; 4. Air mass temperature..., air mass temperature increase...; 5. saturation zones; 6. soil layers; 7. city park ponds;
8. stream channels; 9. surface runoff.
Упражнение 3.
Переведите следующие словосочетания на русский язык:
radiation components, summer months, heat storage term, preliminary analysis, spring melt period, melting ice, the mass of ice melted, ice cover, throughout a winter season, heat flow, the amount of radiation absorbed.
Упражнение 4.
Переведите предложения на русский язык, обращая внимание на цепочки существительных.
1. The cold season circulation pattern is clearly stronger than in the annual mean.
2. The warming of the ocean area south of 50 N was associated with a local increase in the westerly wind speed that generally corresponds to an increase in oceanic heat loss.
3. Freshwater salinity is usually less than 0.5 ppt.
4. Temperature, salinity and pressure work together to determine water density.
5. When the temperature is sufficiently low, ice crystals occur, and once they are present in sufficient concentrations, the entire cloud tends to be transformed into ice crystals.
6. The equilibrium vapour pressure over ice is less than that over liquid water at temperatures below 0 C.
7. Since ice nuclei occur in much smaller numbers than condensation nuclei, this process leads to the formation of ice crystals.
8. The size of the cloud particles which form by condensation depends on the rate and duration of the vertical motion.
9. The explanation is that the process of ice formation, whether by freezing or liquid drops or the condensation of vapour directly into ice crystals, also requires nucleation.
10. A working weather modification program can alter the weather statistics and, therefore, the local ecology.
11. In the absence of surfaces, the vapour pressure can exceed the saturation value several-fold before condensation begins.
12. If the cooling of air is carried out at constant pressure, the temperature at which saturation is reached is called the dew point.
13. Recently, attempts have been made to compute the amount of effect of various treatments to augment warm cloud precipitation from schematic models of cumulus clouds, using high-speed digital computers.
Упражнение 5.
Переведите предложения на русский язык, обращая внимание на цепочки существительных.
1. Flash flood events arise from high to extremely high rainfall rates, whereas river flood events are associated with rainfall events over days and perhaps months.
2. The vertical moisture flux can be related to the condensation rate, which in turn is the ultimate source for precipitation.
3. This means rising air should have a substantial water vapour content and a rapid ascent rate if a significant precipitation rate is to develop.
4. Precipitation efficiency is defined as the ratio of the mass of water falling as precipitation to the influx of water vapour mass into the cloud.
5. Complete oxygen depletion kills all forms of aquatic life except anaerobic bacteria, which do not require oxygen to break down organic material.
6. Plant diversity is low in the northern forests, because few species can survive the long, cold winters, when soil moisture is frozen.
7. Other abiotic factors, such as soil type, light, and fire can act as limiting factors that cause variations in the plant life of major biomes.
8. Some aspects of groundwater pollution can be controlled by parts of existing water pollution control laws.
9. Such a strategy will require greatly increased efforts to control soil erosion through conservation and land-use control for farms, construction sites, and suburban and urban areas.
10. In urban areas most waterborne wastes from homes, businesses, factories, and storm runoff flow through a network of sewer pipes to sewage treatment plants.
11. The science in this early effort is far from the level of climate science today, but Marsh does link land use change, including deforestation and irrigation, to changes in the local climate.
7. Предложения с вводящим словом there
В сочетаниях there с глаголом to be в разных временных формах (there is, there are, there was, there were, there will be, there has been и т.д.) слово there самостоятельного значения не имеет, и все сочетание переводится целиком словами есть, имеется, существует, был, существовал, будет и т.п. Например:
There are many types of climates across the Earth.
На Земле есть много типов климата.
In 2005 there were 12 named storms and 4 hurricanes in the USA.
В 2005 году в США произошло 12 вышеупомянутых бурь и 4 урагана.
There will be a noticeable increase in the earth's average temperature in the next decade.
В следующем десятилетии будет наблюдаться заметное увеличение средней температуры земли.
Слово there сочетается не только с глаголом to be, но и с модальными и некоторыми другими глаголами: should, must, can, may; exist, come, live. При этом на русский язык переводится только глагол. Например:
There must be some available method of estimating net effective rainfall.
Для определения общего количества осадков должен существовать некий доступный метод.
There exist different kinds of precipitation.
Существуют различные виды осадков.
Если в предложении с вводящим словом there есть и наречие there, то оно ставится в конце. Например:
There were several fertilizers applied there.
Там вносилось несколько удобрений.
Тренировочные упражнения
Упражнение 1.
Переведите предложения на русский язык.
1. There remains to be mentioned only one point known as the "extended duration" period.
2. For millions of years there have been repeated advances and retreats of the sea over many districts.
3. If there is no relatively impervious stratum above the water table, there may be no surface runoff, and the flow will be well sustained.
4. From the geographical point of view there is thus a general and regional oceanography both using statistical and descriptive methods.
Упражнение 2.
Переведите, обращая внимание на порядок слов в русском предложении.
1. There are about 7000 synoptic weather stations on earth.
2. There is the formation of a pollutant layer in the city.
3. There are many physical models of tornadoes.
4. Today there is a lot of information about past climate.
5. Through geologic time there has been constant change in springs.
6. Representative are the conditions that prevail in the wet southern part of Iceland. The climate there is decidedly maritime.
Упражнение 3.
Переведите предложения на русский язык.
1. Where there is water, there is life.
2. There is not much rainfall in this region in summer.
3. There is a great variety of instruments used for measuring the amount of precipitation.
4. The topography varies from morainic to flat but there is very little swamp land.
5. The greatest flood regarding which there is reliable information occurred in 1897.
6. Thus there are three major estimates of the extent of flood damage.
7. There has been much dispute over the applicability of this method in agricultural hydrology.
|
|
|
