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I. SEM – based on the absence of logically necessary elements
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LECTURE 8. SYNTACTICAL EXPRESSIVE MEANS AND STYLISTIC DEVICES
1. SEM – based on the absence of logically necessary elements (ellipsis, one-member sentences, aposiopesis /ə ’pousaiə ’pi: sis/ (умолчание), asyndeton, apakoinou / ə pə ’koinə / апакойна, cumulation)
2. SEM – based on the presence of extra elements (repetition, polysyndeton, parenthesis)
3. SEM – based on the unusual arrangement of syntactical elements (inversion).
4. SEM – based on the interplay of adjoining sentences (parallel constructions, chiasmus).
5. SEM – based on the peculiarities of connectives and connections (detachment, parcellation).
6. SEM with some change in their semantic function (rhetorical questions).
7. Non-personal direct speech (represented speech).
8. Stylistic use of phraseology. Proverb. Saying. Epigram. Allusion. Quotation. Paradox.
9. Violation of phraseological units.
Syntactical expressive means – are deviations from regular neutral syntactical structures aimed to produce a stylistic effect.
I. SEM – based on the absence of logically necessary elements
Ellipsis
Ellipsis is a typical phenomenon in conversation, arising out of the situation. This typical feature of the spoken language assumes a new quality when used in the written language. It becomes a stylistic device. An elliptical sentence in direct intercourse is not a stylistic device. It is simply a norm of the spoken language. Ellipsis, when used as a stylistic device, always imitates the common features of colloquial language, where the situation predetermines not the omission of certain members of the sentence but their absence. It would perhaps be adequate to call sentences lacking certain members " incomplete-sentences", leaving the term ellipsis to specify structures where we recognize a digression from the traditional literary sentence structure. Thus the sentences 'See you to-morrow, 'Had a good time? '
Ellipsis – is a syntactical device in which one or both main parts of the sentence are omitted. Elliptical sentences make the speech abrupt, energetic, careless and familiar. Ellipsis is widely used in military commands, in reference books. In literature it’s employed for speech characterization, for creating represented speech (non-personal direct speech – несобственно-прямая речь), in the author’s narration it makes the utterance laconic, dynamic, prominent, sometimes tense. Ellipsis, when used as a stylistic device, always imitates the common features of colloquial language, where the situation predetermines not the omission of certain members of the sentence, but their absence. Nothing so difficult as a beginning. There’s somebody wants to speak to you.
One-Member Sentences
One-member sentences – are sentences with one syntactical centre usually expressed by the substantive. They are often used to mark off the beginning of a chapter or a novel. They are very expressive. Sometimes they may create a cinematographic effect when the general panorama is followed by details (blow-ups – увеличенные снимки). One-member sentences add to laconic, dynamic character of the narration. They convey emotional colouring: The night of departure. The platform clock. Two minutes before nine.
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It is difficult to draw a line of demarcation between elliptical sentences and one-member sentences.
One-member sentences may be used to heighten the emotional tension of the narration or to single out the character’s or the author’s attitude towards what is happening.
e. g. A dark gentleman… A very bad manner. In the last degree constrained, reserved, diffident, troubled.
Aposiopesis
Aposiopesis is a device which dictionaries define as " A stopping short for rhetorical effect. " This is true. But this definition is too general to disclose the stylistic functions of the device. In the written variety, a break in the narrative is always a stylistic device used for some stylistic effect. It is difficult, however, to draw a hard and fast distinction between break-in-the-narrative as a typical feature of lively colloquial language and as a specific stylistic device. The only criterion which may serve as a guide is that in conversation the implication can be conveyed by an adequate gesture. In writing it is the context, which suggests the adequate intonation, that is the only key to decoding the aposiopesis. Aposiopesis is a stylistic syntactical device to convey to the reader a very strong upsurge of emotions. The idea of this stylistic device is that the speaker cannot proceed his feelings depriving him of the ability to express himself in terms of language. Break-in-the-narrative is a device which, on the one hand, offers a number of variants in deciphering (расшифровка) the implication and, on the other, is highly predictable. The problem of implication is, as it were, a crucial one in stylistics. What is implied sometimes outweighs what is expressed. In other stylistic devices the degree of implication is not so high as in break-in-the-narrative. A sudden break in the narrative will inevitably focus the attention on what is left unsaid. Therefore the interrelation between what is given and what is new becomes more significant, inasmuch as the given is what is said and the new—what is left unsaid. Aposiopesis is a stylistic device in which the role of the intonation implied cannot be over-estimated. The pause after the break is generally charged with meaning and it is the intonation only that will decode the communicative significance of the utterance.
Aposiopesis /ə ’pousaiə ’pi: sis/ (умолчание, недосказ) – is a sudden break in the narration for certain stylistic purposes. The sentence is left unfinished, incomplete both logically and syntactically. It is used to suggest either strong emotions or a certain reluctance to convey the thought completely: If the police come… find me here… You just come home, or I’ll…. I still don’t quite like the face, it’s just a trifle too full, but –“ I swung myself on the stool.
Aposiopesis is used to show somebody’s uncertainty, hesitation, sometimes tension. It is used in represented speech.
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Asyndeton
Asyndeton – асиндетон (бессоюзие) – is the connection of sentences, phrases, words without any conjunctions. It makes each phrase independent and significant, it shows that the enumeration is not complete, it creates energetic and dynamic rhythm: He was distressed, impatient, angry.
Asyndeton, that is, connection between parts of a sentence or between sentences without any formal sign, becomes a stylistic device if there is a deliberate omission of the connective where it is generally expected to be according to the norms of the literary language. " Bicket did not answer his throat felt too dry. " (J. Galsworthy) the absence of the conjunction and a punctuation mark may be regarded as a deliberate introduction of the norms of colloquial speech into the literary language. Such structures make the utterance sound like one syntactical unit to be pronounced in one breath group. This determines the intonation pattern.
Asyndeton helps the author to make each phrase or word sound independent and significant.
Asyndeton generally creates an effect that the enumeration is not completed.
Asyndeton also creates a certain rhythmical arrangement, usually making the narrative measured and energetic.
e. g. She watched them go; she said nothing; it was not to begin then.
Apakoinou
Apakoin(o)u - / ə pə ’koinə / апакойна) – is the blending of two sentences through a word which has two syntactical functions, one for each of the blended sentences: It was he told me about it. Here is a gentleman wants to see you.
This structure was quite a norm in Old English and Middle English. Now it is used mostly in dialogues and characterizes smb’s speech, as hurried or slovenly (неряшливая) or not quite educated speech. Sometimes it occurs in literature as an archaic element and may create elevation.
There was a monkey climbed a tree…
Usually the word common for both sentences is a predicative or an object in the first sentence and subject in the second one. So far as such construction does not make part of the grammatically correct modern English, it almost does not occur in the author’s speech, having for its main stylistic function the characteristic of a personage through his speech. Apokoinu testifies as a rule the slovenly, careless or uneducated speech.
e. g. There was no breeze came through the door.
The main stylistic function is to emphasize irregular, careless or uneducated speech of personages.
Cumulation
Cumulation is the connection of sentences or phrases that are grammatically and semantically independent.
The cumulative construction is an independent sentence, logically it belongs to a different semantic sphere, and seems quite unexpectedly joined to the previous paragraph by the conjunctive “but”.
Cumulative constructions are usually connected by the conjunctions “but”, “and” sometimes “or”.
Cumulation may have various stylistic functions. Very often the linking thought between cumulative constructions is missing and cumulation stresses a sudden transition from one thought to another.
Cumulative constructions often introduce represented speech thus bringing out a sudden transition from one kind of speech to another. Very close to cumulation stands a group of cases where the syntactical unity of semantically alien elements brings forth a humorous effect.
The so-called nonsense of non-sequence, too, presents a combination of two ideas semantically not following each other, but syntactically united by coordinative or subordinative connection. The second part of every sentence is in no way explained or prompted by the first part.
e. g. On the station platform were Negro soldiers. They wore brown uniforms, and were too tall to stare.
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