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Topic 1.2. HISTORY OF THE LAW
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Topic 1.1. INTRODUCTION TO LAW
Задание 1. Изучите и запомните следующие значения термина “ LAW”. Составьте свои предложения с этим термином вначале на русском языке, затем переведите их на английский.
· закон (регулирующий, предписывающий акт);
· право; правоведение, законоведение, юриспруденция;
· профессия юриста.
· in accordance with the law – в соответствии с законом;
· to enforce a law – применять закон поводить закон в жизнь;
· to obey a law – соблюдать закон, подчиняться закону;
· to break a law – нарушить, преступить закон.
Text 1. WHY DO WE NEED LAW?
Almost everything we do is governed by some set of rules. There are rules for games, for sports and for adults in the workplace. There are also rules imposed by morality and custom that play an important role in telling us what we should and should not do.
However, some rules – those made by the state – are called “laws”. Laws resemble morality because they are designed to control or alter our behaviour. If you break a law – whether you like that law or not – you may be forced to pay a fine, pay damages, or go to prison.
Why are some rules so special that they are made into laws? Why do we need rules that everyone must obey? In short, what is the purpose of law?
If we did not live in a structured society with other people, laws would not be necessary. We would simply do as we please, with little regard for others. But ever since individuals began to associate with other people – to live in society – laws have been the glue that has kept society together. For example, the law in our country states that we must drive our cars on the right-hand side of a two-way street. If people were allowed to choose at random which side of the street to drive on, driving would be dangerous. Laws against criminal conduct help to safeguard our personal properly and our lives.
Even in a well-ordered society, people have disagreements and conflicts arise. The law must provide a way to resolve these disputes peacefully. If two people claim to own the same piece of property, we do not want the matter settled by a duel: we turn to the law and to institutions like the courts to decide who is the real owner and to make sure that the real owner’s rights are respected.
We need law, then, to ensure a safe and peaceful society in which individuals’ rights are respected. The legal system should respect individual rights while, at the same time, ensuring that society operates in an orderly manner. And society should believe in the Rule of Law, which means that the law applies to every person, including members of the police and other public officials, who must carry out their public duties in accordance with the law.
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In our society laws are not only designed to govern our conduct: they are also intended to give effect to social policies. For example, some laws provide for benefits when workers are injured on the job, for health care, as well as for loans to students who otherwise might not be able to go to university.
Another goal of the law is fairness. This means that the law should recognize and protect certain basic individual rights and freedoms, such as liberty and equality. The law also serves to ensure that strong groups and individuals do not use their powerful positions in society to take unfair advantage of weaker individuals.
However, despite the best intentions, laws are sometimes created so that people later recognize as being unjust or unfair. In a democratic society, laws are not carved in stone, but must reflect the changing needs of society. In a democracy, anyone who feels that a particular law is flawed has the right to seek to change the law by lawful means.
Задание 2. Прочитайте текст.
Задание 3. Найдите соответствие между английскими терминологическими словосочетаниями и их эквивалентами на русском языке. Обратите внимание: один эквивалент лишний.
| Словосочетание | Эквивалент | ||
| 1) | the purpose of law | a) | уважать права отдельного человека |
| 2) | to choose at random | b) | отражать изменяющиеся потребности общества |
| 3) | to safeguard our personal property and our lives | c) | иметь разногласия |
| 4) | to have disagreements | d) | верить в верховенство закона |
| 5) | to resolve disputes peacefully | e) | защищать основные права и свободы |
| 6) | to turn to the law | f) | назначение (цель) права |
| 7) | to respect individual rights | g) | в соответствии с постановлением суда |
| 8) | to believe in the Rule of Law | h) | стремиться изменить закон законными средствами |
| 9) | in accordance with the law | i) | охранять нашу собственность и жизнь |
| 10) | to protect basic individual rights and freedoms | j) | в соответствии с законом |
| 11) | to reflect the changing needs of society | k) | обращаться к закону |
| 12) | to seek to change the law by lawful means | l) | решать споры миром |
| m) | выбирать что-либо наугад |
Задание 4. Письменно переведите текст, обращая особое внимание на терминологические сочетания задания 3.
Задание 5. Подберите подходящий по смыслу ответ из предложенных вариантов и обоснуйте свой выбор двумя-тремя предложениями. Начните свой ответ одним из следующих выражений.
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| Model: | a) I quite agree with the statement that …because... |
| b) I think that... because... |
1. Almost everything we do is governed by...
a) rules for games.
b) the courts.
c) some set of rules.
d) customs and traditions.
2. If we didn’t live in a structured society with other people...
a) we would simply do as we please.
b) we would simply do with little regard for others.
c) law enforcement bodies would arrest and punish people without trial.
d) laws would not be necessary.
3. Laws against criminal conduct help...
a) to protect our property.
b) to take advantage of other individuals.
c) to safeguard our personal property and our lives.
d) to protect basic individual rights and freedoms.
4. We turn to the law...
a) to resolve disputes peacefully.
b) to decide who is the real owner of a piece of property.
c) to have disagreements and conflicts
d) to force people to keep their promises.
5. Another goal of the law is...
a) to protect certain basic individual rights and freedoms.
b) fairness.
c) to seek to change the law by lawful means
d) to provide for benefits.
Задание 6. Предложения, помещенные ниже, поставьте в отрицательную форму и вопросительную (общий и специальный вопросы) форму и дайте ответы на поставленные вопросы.
| Model: | Laws resemble customs. |
| Отрицательная форма: | Laws do not resemblehabits. |
| Общий вопрос: | Do laws resemble habits? – No, laws do not resemble habits. |
| Специальный вопрос: | What do laws resemble? – Laws resemble customs and morality. |
1. In society laws govern our conduct only.
2. We always notice the laws.
3. We always do as we please with little regard for others.
4. In a democratic society, laws reflect the changing needs of society.
5. Some groups and individuals use their powerful positions in society to take unfair advantage of weaker individuals.
Задание 7. Выразите согласие/несогласие со следующими утверждениями, используя речевые модели.
| Model: | a) I fully agree with the statement that... |
| b) I am afraid, I can’t agree with the statement that... |
1. Not everything we do is governed by some set of rules.
2. We need rules that everyone must obey.
3. Laws against criminal conduct don’t help to safeguard our personal property and our lives.
4. In a well-ordered society conflicts never arise.
5. It is impossible to resolve disputes peacefully.
6. If individual’s rights are respected it means that we live in a safe and peaceful society.
7. Totalitarian governments have cruel and arbitrary laws.
8. Strong-arm tactics may provide a great deal of order ensuring the society operates in an orderly manner.
9. Laws should be applied to every person in the society.
10. The only goal of the law is fairness.
Задание 8. Переведите следующие предложения с английского языка на русский.
1. Все люди должны соблюдать закон.
2. Термин «закон» означает установленные государством обязательные правила и нормы поведения.
3. Законы существуют для того, чтобы охранять нашу собственность и жизнь.
Задание 9. Ответьте на вопросы;
1. What kind of society do we live in?
2. What is the society governed by?
3. What is the difference between laws and rules of morality?
4. Why are laws designed to control our behaviour?
5. Why do we need law?
Задание 10. Подготовьте краткий пересказ текста в соответствии со схемой:
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1. The article puts forward… (Вопросы, обсуждаемые в тексте)
2. The article discusses some problems relating to... (Начало текста)
3. At the beginning the author points out... (Переход к следующим частям текста)
4. Then the author goes on the problem...
5. The final paragraph states that... (Конец изложения текста)
6. In my opinion... (Оценка материала или проблемы изложенной в тексте)
Задание 11. Изучите и запомните следующие значения термина “ LEGAL”. Составьте свои предложения с этим термином вначале на русском языке, затем переведите их на английский.
· юридический правовой;
· судебный;
· законный / дозволенный законом;
· легальный, правомерный.
Задание 12. Найдите соответствие между английскими терминологическими словосочетаниями и их эквивалентами на русском языке. Обратите внимание: один эквивалент лишний.
| Словосочетание | Эквивалент | ||
| 1) | legal action | a) | законные права |
| 2) | legal advise | b) | законный владелец |
| 3) | legal decision | c) | правовая система |
| 4) | legal document | d) | консультация юриста |
| 5) | legal expert | e) | правовая защита |
| 6) | legal implications | f) | правовой документ |
| 7) | legal means | g) | юрист; адвокат |
| 8) | legal obligations | h) | судебный иск; обращение в суд |
| 9) | legal owner | i) | решение суда |
| 10) | legal proceeding | j) | правовые юридические нормы |
| 11) | legal protection | k) | судопроизводство |
| 12) | legal rights | l) | средства, предусмотренные законом |
| 13) | legal rules | m) | правовые обязательства |
| 14) | legal order | n) | юридическое лицо |
| 15) | legal system | o) | правовые последствия |
| p) | правовой порядок, правовой режим |
Текст 2. LAW AND SOCIETY
When the world was at a very primitive stage of development there were no laws to regulate life of people. If a man chose to kill his wife or if a woman succeeded in killing her husband that was their own business and no one interfered officially.
But things never stay the same. The life has changed. We live in a complicated world. Scientific and social developments increase the tempo of our daily living activities. Now we need rule s and regulations which govern our every social move and action. We have made laws of community living.
Though laws are based on the reasonable needs at the community we often don’t notice them. If our neighbour plays loud music late at night, we probably try to discuss the matter with him rather than consulting the police, the legal expert or the courts. When we buy a TV set, or a train ticket or loan money to somebody a lawyer may tell us it represents a contract with legal obligations. But to most of us it is just a ticket that gets us on a train or a TV set to watch.
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Only when a neighbour refuses to behave reasonably or when we are injured in a train accident, the money wasn’t repaid, the TV set fails to work and the owner of the shop didn’t return money or replace it, we do start thinking about the legal implications of everyday activities. And you may wish to take legal action to recover your loss.
Some transactions in modern society are so complex that few of us would risk making them without first seeking legal advice. For example, buying or selling a house, or setting up a business. On the whole it seems that people all over the world are becoming more and more accustomed to using legal means to regulate their relations with each other. Multinational companies employ lawyers to ensure that their contracts are valid whenever they do business.
Задание 13. Прочитайте текст.
Задание 14. Письменно переведите текст.
Задание 15. Найдите в тексте термины, соответствующие данным определениям.
1. _____ is the system of rules which a particular country or community recognizes as regulating the actions of its members and which it may enforce by the imposition of penalties.
2. _____ is an instruction that tells you what you are allowed to do and what you are not allowed to do.
3. _____ is the people considered collectively, especially in the context of social values and responsibilities.
4. _____ is the civil force of a state, responsible for the prevention and detection of crime and the maintenance of public order.
5. _____ is a place where legal matters are decided by a judge and jury.
Задание 16. Подберите подходящий по смыслу ответ из предложенных вариантов и обоснуйте свой выбор двумя-тремя предложениями. Начните свой ответ одним из следующих выражений.
| Model: | a) I fully agree with the statement that... because... |
| b) I think that... because… |
1. Relations between people are regulated by...
a) the government.
b) prescriptive laws.
c) people’s experience.
d) customs and traditions.
2. If we always break rules, other members of society may...
a) refuse to have anything to do with us.
b) carry precise penalties.
c) use the system of courts.
d) consult the police.
3. When governments make laws for their citizens...
a) they use the power of the police to enforce them.
b) they use justice.
c) they observe public opinion.
d) they try to use common sense.
4. We start thinking about the legal implications of everyday activities when …
a) no one interfere officially.
b) something goes wrong.
c) you may wish to take legal action to recover your loss.
d) we use legal means to regulate our relations with other people.
5. It seems that people all over the world are becoming more and more accustomed to using legal means to …
a) decide who is the real owner of a piece of property.
b) behave reasonably.
c) control their behave towards each other.
d) loan money to somebody.
Задание 17. Выразите согласие/несогласие с утверждениями, используя следующие речевые модели.
| Model: | a) I think it is true. The text tells us that... |
| b) To my mind, it is false because... |
1. We usually think about the legal implications of everyday activities.
2. Few of us would risk making transactions without first seeking legal advice.
3. People all over the world are becoming more and more accustomed to using legal means to regulate their relations with each other.
4. Even though the TV set fails to work and the owner of the shop doesn’t return your money or replace the TV set, we don’t start thinking of taking legal advice.
5. When you buy a train ticket a lawyer may tell you it represents a contract with legal obligations.
Задание 18. Исправьте ошибки в следующих высказываниях. Постройте предложения по модели, используя подсказки в скобках.
| Model: | Offenders obey laws. (break) → Offenders don’t obey laws. They break them. |
1. Law-abiding citizens break laws. (obey)
2. The laws guarantee our happiness. (security)
3. We need police forces which govern rules of community living. (legal means)
4. We need the system of courts only to ensure a safe society in which individuals’ rights are respected. (law)
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5. People get accustomed to using unlawfu l means to regulate their relations. (legal)
Задание 19. Переведите следующие предложения с русского языка на английский.
1. В обществе закон определяет права и обязанности граждан.
2. Законы составляют основу правовой системы государства.
3. Выполнение законов является основной задачей государства и правительства.
4. Закон не является застывшим в своем развитии институтом. Вместе с обществом и государством он постоянно изменяется и развивается.
Задание 20. Ответьте на вопросы.
1. Were there any laws when the world was at a very primitive stage of development?
2. Why do we need rules and regulations nowadays?
3. Do we notice laws? Why?
4. When do we start thinking about the legal implications of our everyday activities?
5. In what cases do people seek legal advice?
6. Why do companies employ lawyers?
Задание 21. Подготовьте краткий пересказ текста в соответствии со схемой:
1. The article puts forward… (Вопросы, обсуждаемые в тексте)
2. The article discusses some problems relating to... (Начало текста)
3. At the beginning the author points out... (Переход к следующим частям текста)
4. Then the author goes on the problem...
5. The final paragraph states that... (Конец изложения текста)
6. In my opinion... (Оценка материала или проблемы изложенной в тексте)
Задание 22. Изучите и запомните следующие значения термина “ GOVERNMENT”. Составьте свои предложения с этим термином вначале на русском языке, затем переведите их на английский.
· Государственная власть, государство;
· Управление, руководство;
· Форма правления, государственное устройство, политический строй;
· Правительство, правительственный аппарат.
Задание 23. Найдите соответствие между английскими словосочетаниями и их эквивалентами на русском языке. Обратите внимание: один эквивалент лишний.
| Словосочетание | Эквивалент | ||
| 1) | to carry out the government of the state | a) | формировать правительство |
| 2) | a system of government | b) | осуществлять управление государством |
| 3) | to form the government | c) | правительственный аппарат |
| 4) | government of the day | d) | срок полномочий правительства |
| 5) | government’s term of office | e) | система правления |
| f) | действующее правительство |
Текст 3. THE AIM OF THE LAW
The aim of (права) is to regulate the conduct of human beings in society. The theory of natural law is based on the belief that there is a set of perfect (юридических норм) for human conduct and (законы) devised by men must be induced by these rules.
(Закон) is a term which is used in many different senses. To (юриста) law has a far narrower meaning – the principle recognized and applied by the state in (суде). When (государства) make laws for their citizens, they use the system of courts backed by the power of the police (для того чтобы проводить эти законы в жизнь). Of course, there may be instances where the law is not enforced against someone – such as when young children (совершают преступления). But the general nature of the law is enforced equally against all members of the nation.
Governments have many ways of making sure that citizens (подчиняются закону). They make the public aware of what the law is and try to encourage social support for (правопорядку). They use police forces (расследовать преступления) and catch criminals. They authorize courts to complete the investigation of criminal and (гражданских правонарушений) and to pass sentences to (наказать виновного) and deter others. And they make efforts to re-educate and reform people who have broken the law.
The laws of all countries are to be found in written records – (правовые кодексы) of countries with continental systems, the statutes and case-judgments of common law countries, warning on official forms, and notice in public buildings. Many people do not know where to find these records and do not find it easy to read them. But (незнание законов не освобождает от ответственности).
Governments usually expect citizens to be aware of the laws which affect their lives. However, there are many laws, such as those prohibiting theft, assault and dangerous driving which simply reflect social and moral attitudes to everyday behaviour. In such cases a person knows he (нарушает закон), even if he doesn’t know exactly which law it is.
Задание 24. Замените русские слова в скобках английскими эквивалентами.
Задание 25. Письменно переведите текст.
Задание 26. Предложения, помещенные ниже, поставьте в вопросительную (общий и специальный вопросы) форму и дайте ответы на поставленные вопросы.
| Model: | Laws resemble customs. |
| Общий вопрос: | Do laws resemble habits? – No, laws do not resemble habits. |
| Специальный вопрос: | What do laws resemble? – Laws resemble customs and morality. |
1. Governments make the society aware of what the law is.
2. Governments usually expect citizens to be aware of the laws which affect their lives.
3. Many people do not know where to find legal documents.
4. Governments use the system of courts backed by the power of the police when they make laws for their citizens.
5. The states make efforts to re-educate and reform people who have broken the law.
Задание 27. Переведите следующие предложения с русского языка на английский.
1. Людям нужны законы, потому что они живут в обществе. В справедливом обществе все люди имеют равные права и обязанности.
2. Некоторые правила общественной жизни превратились в законы, которым должны подчиняться все люди.
3. Одной из целей закона является необходимость гарантировать защиту основных прав и свобод.
4. Использование правовых средств регулирования общественных отношений охраняет нашу собственность и жизнь.
5. Многие люди не знают законов, но незнание законов не освобождает от ответственности.
Задание 28. Подготовьте краткий пересказ текста в соответствии со схемой:
1. The author believes...
2. Firstly the author points at...
3. Secondly the author supposes...
4. Thirdly the author thinks...
5. Finally the author concludes...
TEST I
“INTRODUCTION TO LAW”
Задание 29. Какие термины соответствуют данным определениям? Занесите свои ответы в таблицу 1.
1. ____ is people in general, thought of as a large organized group.
2. _____ is a nation or territory considered as an organized political community under one government.
3. ____ is the group of people with the authority to govern a state.
4. _____ is the system of rules that a society or government develops in order to deal with crime, business agreements, and social relationships.
5. ____ refers to a situation in which the people in a society obey its laws and enable it to function properly.
Задание 30. Заполните пропуски в тексте подходящими по смыслу частями предложений. Обратите внимание: одна часть лишняя. Занесите свои ответы в таблицу 1.
a) they use a system of courts and the police to enforce these laws;
b) they arrest and punish people without trial;
c) whether legal ones or moral;
d) if we continually break the rules;
e) which it may enforce by the imposition of penalties;
f) informal rules of social and moral behavior.
In all societies, relations between people are regulated by rules 6_____.
Some of these rules are customs. Customs are 7____. Customs are not made by governments, and they need not be written down. We learn how we are to behave in society through the instruction of family and teachers, the advice of friends, etc. Sometimes, we can break these rules without any penalty. But 8____, other members of society may criticize us, or refuse to have anything to do with us.
However, some rules become laws. The law is the system of rules which a particular country or community recognizes as regulating the actions of its members and 9____. When governments make laws for their citizens, 10____.
Таблица 1
| № задания | Критерии оценивания | ||
| Задание 29 | Оценка | Количество правильных ответов | |
| 1. | 5 (отлично) | ||
| 2. | 4 (хорошо) | 8 – 9 | |
| 3. | 3 (удовлетворительно) | 6 – 7 | |
| 4. | |||
| 5. | |||
| Задание 30 | |||
| 6. | |||
| 7. | |||
| 8. | |||
| 9. | |||
| 10. |
Topic 1.2. HISTORY OF THE LAW
Текст 4. THE BIRTH OF LAW
Since the time when our ancestors first began to live in large and settled groups, rules have been adopted to protect individuals and groups and to govern their relationships. Even the most ancient peoples compiled Law Codes. But our knowledge is vague of laws that were in effect before the invention of writing in about 3500 B.C.
The oldest law code is tablets from the ancient archives of the city of Ebla (now on the territory of Syria) which date to about 2400 B.C. The tablets dealt with diplomacy and foreign relations, internal and domestic affairs, and religious and cultural matters.
The earliest known legal text was written by Ur-Nammu, a king of the Mesopotamian city of Ur (now on the territory of modern Iraq), in about 2100 B.C. The Code of Ur-Nammu assumed a universal understanding on the part of the people that law descended from the gods and the king was simply the administrator of those laws. Harsh penalties were considered unnecessary for the majority of crimes as, since people were assumed to know how they should behave toward each other, a monetary fine as a reminder of how to behave was sufficient. The Code is comprised of 40 paragraphs that state the crime and the punishment that would be administered by the state through the will of the gods. Some examples of the laws are:
· If a man committed a kidnapping, he is to be imprisoned and pay fifteen shekels of silver.
· If a man appeared as a witness, and was shown to be a perjurer, he must pay fifteen shekels of silver.
One of the most detailed ancient legal codes was drawn up by Hammurabi, a king of Babylon (on the territory of modern Iraq) around 2000 B.C. The entire code, consisting of 282 paragraphs, was carved into a great stone pillar, which was set up in a temple so that it could be read by every citizen. This became known as the Law Code of Hammurabi.
It dealt with many of the same subjects as our legal system today. It included real and personal property law (the rights of slave owners and slaves, inheritance and property contracts); family law (marriage and divorce); criminal law (crimes and punishment of crimes); and business law (the settlement of debts and even regulations about taxes and the prices of goods).
The code outlawed private blood feuds and banned the tradition by which a man could kidnap the woman he wanted for his bride. In addition, the new laws took account of the circumstances of the offender as well as of the offence. So a lower-ranking citizen who lost a civil case would be fined less than an aristocrat in the same position – though he would also be awarded less if he won.
Punishments under the code were often harsh. The cruel principle of revenge was observed: an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth, which meant that criminals had to receive as punishment precisely those injuries and damages they had inflicted upon their victims. Not only murderers but also thieves and false accusers faced the death penalty.
Nevertheless, Hammurabi’s laws represented an advance on earlier tribal customs, because in accordance with the Law Code of Hammurabi the penalty could not be harder than the crime. The laws set forth in the Law Code of Hammurabi were written by the king – a divinely inspired authority. Only the King could change such laws. This absolutism of power in the monarch was typical of legal systems until the time of the Greeks around 300 B.C.
Задание 31. Прочитайте текст.
Задание 32. Найдите в тексте английские эквиваленты следующим словосочетаниям на русском языке.
1. вор;
2. смертная казнь;
3. брак;
4. клеветник;
5. наказание;
6. правонарушитель;
7. правонарушение;
8. преступление;
9. гражданское дело;
10. наносить ущерб;
11. наносить увечья;
12. похищать;
13. имущественные контракты;
14. правовые нормы, регулирующие вопросы личной собственностинедвижимости;
15. правовые нормы, регулирующие имущественные права;
16. семейное право;
17. уголовное право;
18. торговое право;
19. правовой юридический документ;
20. свод законов.
Задание 33. Найдите в тексте термины, соответствующие данным определениям.
1. _____ is an instruction that tell you what you are allowed to do and what you are not allowed to do;
2. _____ is a punishment imposed for a violation of law or rule;
3. _____ is payment for damage or loss;
4. _____ is an illegal action or activity for which a person can be punished by law;
5. _____ is to ban or make illegal.
Задание 34. Письменно переведите текст.
Задание 35. Подберите подходящий по смыслу ответ из предложенных вариантов и обоснуйте свой выбор двумя-тремя предложениями. Начните свой ответ одним из следующих выражений.
| Model: | a) I fully agree with the statement that... because... |
| b) I think that... because… |
1. The earliest laws appeared because …
a) there were a lot of illegal activities.
b) ancient peoples compiled Law Codes.
c) people began to live in society.
d) ancient people needed compensations for bodily injuries.
2. It is difficult to judge about the earliest laws before about 3500 B.C. because…
a) ancient peoples did not compile Law Codes.
b) there was no writing.
c) people did not live in large and settled groups.
d) there was no need to protect individuals and groups.
3. Tablets from the city of Ebla dealt largely with …
a) the activities of managing internal and international relations.
b) compensation for bodily injuries.
c) inheritance and property contracts and the settlement of debts.
d) earlier tribal customs.
4. The Law Code of Ur-Nammu dealt largely with …
a) the activities of managing internal and international relations.
b) penalties and compensations.
c) inheritance and property contracts and the settlement of debts.
d) earlier tribal customs.
5. The Law Code of Hammurabi dealt largely with …
a) the activities of managing internal and international relations.
b) compensation for bodily injuries.
c) inheritance and property contracts and the settlement of debts.
d) earlier tribal customs.
Задание 36. Выразите согласие/несогласие с утверждениями, используя следующие речевые модели.
| Model: | a) I think it is true. The text tells us that... |
| b) To my mind, it is false because... |
1. The earliest known legal texts appeared to govern the relationships between people when they began to live in large and settled groups.
2. The oldest law code is tablets from the ancient archives of the city of Ebla which date to about 3500 B.C.
3. The Law Code of Ur-Nammu was set up in a temple so that it could be read by every citizen.
4. The Law Code of Hammurabi introduced the “eye for an eye” principle which meant that if a person was hurt, then the injured person (or their relative) would take vengeful retribution on the person who caused the injury.
5. Before the Greeks gods, goddesses and kings were the source of law.
Задание 37. Найдите соответствие между датой и правовым документом. Обратите внимание: одна дата лишняя.
| Дата | Правовой документ | ||
| 1) | around 3500 В.С. | a) | tablets from the city of Ebla |
| 2) | around 2400 B.C. | b) | the Law Code of Hammurabi |
| 3) | around 2100 B.C. | c) | the Law Code of Ur-Nammu |
| 4) | around 2000 B.C. |
Задание 38. Переведите предложения с русского языка на английский.
1. Закон – это часть жизни людей, однако мы очень мало знаем о самых ранних законах.
2. Закон Ур-Намму – это один из самых первых известных нам правовых документов. В основном этот документ касался компенсаций телесных повреждений и наказаний.
3. Древнейший свод законов был составлен Хаммурапи, царем Вавилона. Кодекс Хаммурапи состоит их 282 статей и охватывает все сферы жизни. В основе кодекса Хаммурапи лежит идея о том, что наказание должно быть «равным» преступлению – «око за око, зуб за зуб».
4. Кодекс Хаммурапи ставил вне закона убийство и клеветничество. Наказания за них были суровыми. Кодекс также рассматривал вопросы имущества и наследства.
5. Кодекс Хаммурапи устанавливал денежный штраф, при назначении которого учитывалось как само правонарушение, так и социальное положение граждан.
Задание 39. Ответьте на вопросы.
1. Why is it difficult to judge about the earliest laws?
2. Where and why did the first laws appear?
3. What spheres of human life and what kinds of law did Hammurabi’s code dealt with?
4. How do you understand the principle “an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth”?
5. What issues did the first laws emphasise?
Задание 40. Подготовьте краткий пересказ текста в соответствии со схемой:
1. The author believes...
2. Firstly the author points at...
3. Secondly the author supposes...
4. Thirdly the author thinks...
5. Finally the author concludes...
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