 |
Синтаксические особенности научного стиля
|
|
|
|
- синтаксическая структура: стройная, полная и, по возможности, стереотипная; преобладают сложноподчинённые предложения, простые – развёрнуты за счёт однородных членов;
- преимущественно прямой порядок слов;
- широкое использование различных типов определений; почти каждое существительное имеет постпозитивное или препозитивное определение, предложный, причастный, герундиальный или инфинитивный оборот
e.g. To cover this aspect of communication engineering we had to develop a statistical theory of the amount of information, in which the unit of the amount of information was that transmitted as a single decision between equally probable alternatives. (N.Wiener – Cybernetics …)
- специфичны: препозитивные определительные группы;
e.g. automatic gyrocompass ship-steering systems, anti-aircraft fire-control systems, automatically-controlled oil-cracking stills, ultra rapid computer machines, very old steam-engine governor. (N.Wiener – Cybernetics …)
- обилие и разнообразие союзов и союзных слов, двойных союзов, (эксплицитно выраженные связи между элементами);
e.g. that, and that, than, if, as, or, nor; not merely... but also, whether... or, both... and, as... as...; thereby, therewith, hereby
Source: <I.V.A.>
See: <scientific style>
{{======================================================}}
{{И.Р.Гальперин}}
Seme
Shade of meaning
Nuance of meaning
сема, оттенок/элемент значения
- a component part of meaning;
Source: <I.R.G.>:58
Syn.: seme, shade of meaning, nuance of meaning
See: <meaning>, <word>, <sign>
Meaning
значение
- representation of a concept;
- takes one of the properties, by which a concept is characterised and makes it represent the concept as a whole;
- in reference to concept becomes, as it were, a kind of <metonymy>;
Source: <I.R.G.>:59
- a component (the inner form) of the word through which a concept is communicated (Antrushina)
- presents a structure which is called the semantic structure of the word
••
- <grammatical meaning> or <structural meaning>
- <lexical meaning> or <dictionary meaning>
- <logical meaning> or <referential meaning> or <direct meaning> or <denotational meaning>
- <nominal meaning>
- <stylistic meaning> or <connotative meaning>
- <emotive meaning> or <emotional meaning> or <evaluative meaning>
|
|
|
- <contextual meaning>
See: <word>, <sign>, <lexical SDs>
Contextual meaning
a meaning imposed by and depends on the context;
Source: <I.R.G.>:58,64
See: <meaning>
Lexical meaning
Dictionary meaning
лексическое значение
- refers the mind to some concrete concept, phenomenon, or thing of objective reality, whether real or imaginary;
- a means by which a word-form is made to express a definite concept;
- are closely related to a concept;
- are sometimes identified with a concept;
Source: <I.R.G.>:58-59
See: <meaning>
Grammatical meaning
Structural meaning
грамматическое значение
- refers our mind to relations between words or to some forms of words or constructions bearing upon their structural functions in the language-as-a-system
Source: <I.R.G.>:58
See: <meaning>
Denotational meaning
See: <referential meaning>
Logical meaning
Referential meaning
Direct meaning
логическое значение
- the precise naming of a feature of the idea, phenomenon or object;
- the name by which we recognise the whole of the concept;
- is liable to change;
- of one <word> may denote different concepts;
- has reference not directly to things or phenomena of objective reality
Syn.: logical meaning, referential meaning, direct meaning
Source: <I.R.G.>:64,66
Ant.: <emotive meaning>, <emotional meaning>
See: <nominal meaning>, <meaning>
Emotional meaning
Evaluative meaning
Stylistic meaning
Connotative meaning
See: <emotive meaning>
Emotive meaning
- also materialises a concept in the word, but, unlike logical meaning, it has reference not directly to things or phenomena of objective reality, but to the feelings and emotions of the speaker towards these thighs or to his emotions as such;
- bears reference to things, phenomena or ideas through a kind of evaluation of them;
e.g. I feel so darned lonely. (Gr.Green)
- has function to reveal the subjective, evaluating attitude of the writer to the things or events spoken of;
e.g. She has not a flirt, not even a coquette. (Galsworthy)
Source: <I.R.G.>:66
Ant.: <logical meaning>, referential meaning, direct meaning
See: <contextual emotive meaning>, <meaning>
Contextual emotive meaning
- an <emotive meaning>, acquired by a word only in a definite context
e.g. liberty, justice, stunning, smart
Source: <I.R.G.>:66
See: <emotive meaning>, <meaning>
Nominal meaning
- indicates a particular object out of a class;
- serves the purpose of singling out one definite and singular object out of a whole class of similar objects;
e.g. Hope, Browning, Taylor, Scotland, Black, Chandler, Chester
Source: <I.R.G.>:68
See: <logical meaning>, <meaning>
SPU
Supra-phrasal unit
сверхфразовое единство
- a combination of sentences presenting a structural and semantic unity backed up by rhythmic and melodic unity;
|
|
|
- is used to denote a larger unit than a sentence;
- generally comprises a number of sentences interdependent structurally (usually by means of pronouns, connectives, tense-forms) and semantically (one definite thought is dealt with);
- can be extracted from the context without losing its relative semantic independence;
- can be embodied in a sentence if the sentence meets the requirements of this compositional unit;
- though usually a component part of the paragraph, may occupy the whole of the paragraph;
- This structural unit, in its particular way of arranging ideas, belongs almost exclusively to the <belles-lettres style>, though it may be met with to some extent in the <publicist style>. Other styles, judging by their recognised leading features, don not require this mode of arranging the parts of an utterance except in rare cases which may be neglected.
Source: <I.R.G.>:194-196
See: <paragraph>, <belles-lettres style>, <syntactical SDs>
Paragraph
абзац
- a graphical term used to name a group of sentences marked off by indentation at the beginning and a break in the line at the end;
- a distinct portion of a written discourse showing an integral unity;
- (as a linguistic category) a unit of utterance marked off by purely linguistic means: intonation, pauses of various lengths, semantic ties which can be disclosed by scrupulous analysis of the morphological aspect and <meaning> of the component parts, etc.
- a linguistic expression of a logical, pragmatic and aesthetic arrangement of thought;
- the length normally varies from eight to twelve sentences (in <newspaper style> - one or two);
Source: <I.R.G.>:198-199
See: <supra-phrasal unit>, <newspaper style>, <syntactical SDs>
{{пропущены принципы деления на абзацы в разн. стилях}}
Indirect onomatopoeia
a combination of sounds the aim of which is to make the sound of the utterance an echo of its sense (“echo – writing”) (I.R.G.)
e.g. “And the silken, sad, uncertain, rustling of each purple curtain“(E.Poe)
- is very effectively used by repeating word which themselves are not onomatopoeic
e.g. Silver bells … how they tinkle, tinkle, tinkle … // To the tintinnabulation that so musically wells // From the bells, bells, bells, bells, // Bells, bells, bells, – // From the jingling and the tinkling of the bells. (E.Poe - The Bells)
Rhyme
рифма
the repetition of identical or similar terminal sound combination of words
@ full rhyme
identity of the vowel sound and the following consonant sounds in a stressed syllable (might – right, needless – heedless)
See: <rhyme>
@
- incomplete rhymes:
[m3]@ vowel rhymes
the vowels of the syllable in corresponding words are identical, but the consonants may be different (flesh -–fresh – press)
See: <rhyme>
[m3]@ consonant rhymes
show concordance in consonants and disparity in vowels (worth – forth, tale – tool – Treble – trouble; flung – long)
See: <rhyme>
@
Source: <I.R.G.>
See: < rhythm>, <euphony>,
Rhythm
1) a flow, movement, procedure, etc. characterised by basically regular recurrence of elements or features, as beat, or accent, in alternation with opposite or different elements or features (Webster’s New World Dictionary)
2) a combination of the ideal metrical scheme and the variations of it, variations which are governed by the standard (I.R.G.)
See: <rhyme>, <euphony>,
Whitewashing device
See: <euphemism>
Set expressions
include: clichés, proverbs and sayings, <epigram>s, quotations, <allusion>s
Epigram
эпиграмма
a) a <SD> akin to a proverb, the only difference being that epigrams are coined by individuals whose names we know, while proverbs are the coinage of the people
|
|
|
b) terse, witty, pointed statement, showing the ingenious turn of mind of the originator
e.g. A God that can be understood is no God. (S.Maugham)
e.g. A thing of beauty is a joy forever. (Keats)
e.g. He that bends shall be made straight. (S.Maugham)
e.g. Art is triumphant when it can use convention as an instrument of its own purpose. (S.Maugham – The Razor’s Edge)
Source: <I.R.G.>
See: <set expressions>,<lexical SDs>
Allusion
аллюзия
an indirect reference, by word or phrase, to a historical, literary, mythological, biblical fact or to a fact of everyday life made in the course of speaking or writing
e.g. No little Grandgrind had ever associated a cow in a field with that famous cow with the crumpled horn that tossed the dog that worried the cat that killed the rat that ate the malt, or with that yet more famous cow swallowed Tom Thumb; it had never heard of those celebrities (Dickens – Hard Times)
(The <meaning> that can be derived from the two allusions, one to the nursery <rhyme> “The House that Jack build” and the other to the old tale “The history of Tom Thumb”)
Source: <I.R.G.>
e.g. "Don't count your boobies until they are hatched"(J.Thurber)
See: <set expressions>,<lexical SDs>
Parenthesis
парентеза
a qualifying, explanatory or appositive word, phrase, clause, sentence, or other sequence which interrupts a syntactic construction without otherwise affecting it, having often a characteristic intonation and indicated in writing by commas, brackets or dashes. (Random House Dict. of the Engl. Lang.)
- a variant of <detached construction>
See: <detached construction>, <syntactical SDs>
Enumeration
перечисление
a <SD> by which separate things, objects, phenomena, properties, actions are named one by one so that they produce a chain, the links of which, being syntactically in the same position (homogeneous parts of speech), are forced to display some kind of semantic homogeneity, remote through it may See m. (I.R.G.:216)
- integrates both homogeneous and heterogeneous elements into one whole, unlike <polysyndeton>
e.g. The principal production of these towns … appear to be soldiers, sailors, Jews, chalk, shrimps, officers and dock-yard men. (Dickens – Pickwick Papers)
See: <polysyndeton>, <parallel construction>, <syntactical SDs>
Gap-sentence link
a way of connecting two sentences See mingly unconnected and leaving it to the reader’s perspicacity to grasp the idea implied, but not worded
e.g. She and that fellow ought to be the sufferers, and they were in Italy. (Galsworthy)
(the second part, which is hooked on to the first by the conjunction and, See ms to be unmotivated or, in other words, the whole sentence See ms to be logically incoherent. But this is only the first impression. After a more careful supralinear semantic analysis it becomes clear that the exact logical variant of the utterance would be: ‘Those who ought to suffer were enjoining themselves in Italy’)
- is generally indicated by and or but
- the omissions are justified because the situation easily prompts what has not been said;
- is based on the peculiarities of the spoken language and is therefore most frequently used in represented speech;
- has various functions: it may serve to signal the introduction of inner represented speech, it nay be used to indicate a subjective evaluation of the facts; it may introduce an effect resulting from a cause which has already had verbal expression;
|
|
|
- displays and unexpected coupling of ideas;
- aims at stirring up in the reader’s mind the suppositions, associations and conditions under which the sentence uttered can really exist
e.g. She says nothing, but it is clear that she is harping on this engagement, and – goodness know what. (Galsworthy)
e.g. It was an afternoon to dream. And she took out Jon’s letters. (Galsworthy)
Source: <I.R.G.>
See: <types of connection>
Question-in-the-narrative
is asked and answered by one and the same person, usually the author
e.g. ’For what is left the poet here? // For Greeks a blush – for Greece a tear. (Byron – Don Juan)
- does not contain statement unlike a <rhetorical question>;
- assume a semi-exclamatory nature;
- is very often used in oratory;
- sometimes gives the impression of an intimate talk between the writer and the reader;
e.g. Scrooge knew he was dead? Of course he did. How could it be otherwise? Scrooge and he were partners for I don’t know how many years. (Dickens)
- may also remain unanswered (there are only hints of the possible answers)
e.g. How long must it go on? Now long must we suffer? Where is the end? What is the end? (Norris)
- \[presumes that the questioner does not know the answer\]
Source: <I.R.G.>
See: <rhetorical question>, <syntactical SDs>
{{======================================================}}
There is/are the
••
В большинстве случаев существительное в конструкции с вводящим there употребляется с неопределённым артиклем или без артикля. Употребление определённого артикля, однако, не исключается.
e.g. [u]There was[/u] harmony between father and son again and [u]the old understanding[/u]. (P.Abrahams)
Часто употребление определённого артикля в таких случаях обусловлено стилистически, что находит отражение в переводе.
e.g. There was the long drive home; the long drive and the warm dark and the pleasant closeness of the hansom cab. (Galsworthy) – Всё тот же длинный путь, всё та же дорога и знакомая приятная теснота кеба.
Source: Бархударов Л.С., Штелинг Д.А. Грамматика английского языка. М., 1965. С. 297
See: <stylistic use of articles>, <morphological level>
|
|
|
