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Б). Структура американского федерализма.
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Творцы американской конституции создали систему «конституционных противовесов», основанную на точно установленных конституционных нормах, отведенных законодательной, исполнительной и судебной власти. Система «конституционных противовесов» определяет также и взаимоотношения федеральной власти с американскими штатами. В обязанности федерации в лице президента входит защита территории штатов от внешнего вторжения. В чрезвычайных ситуациях свои военные полномочия главнокомандующего президента может осуществлять и внутри страны, используя военную силу на территории любого штата для восстановления законности и порядка.
Велика в США и роль Верховного суда. Он вправе отменять законоположения, если сочтет их незаконными, включая и те, которые подписаны президентом. Однако решение об использовании федеральных вооруженных сил – прерогатива президента, и даже высшая судебная инстанция США не вправе отменить эти президентские полномочия.
Штаты имеют свои конституции и свои своды законов. Но одним из основных принципов американского федерализма является верховенство федерального права по отношению к правовым системам штатов. Штаты не могут вступать в международные союзы, заключать международные договоры, выпускать деньги, не имеют права на выход из союза. Надзор за деятельностью администрации штата осуществляет губернатор. Он имеет также и законодательные полномочия, но все его действия не должны идти вразрез с конституцией США.
Американские штаты всегда считали себя частью, органически связанной с президентской властью и властью Конгресса. Сильный президент и сильный Конгресс являются для них основами их собственной стабильности и благополучия.
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В) Как конгресс издает законы? На рассмотрение каждой сессии Конгресса Соединенных Штатов вносятся тысячи законопроектов. Все они, идет ли речь об оказании помощи пострадавшим от засухи фермерам, о восстановлении пенсии несправедливо обиженного ветерана или о решении приостановить забастовку, начинают свой путь в одном и том же месте – в Капитолии, который стоит в центре Вашингтона на небольшой возвышенности, называемой Капитолийским холмом. Именно здесь законодательная ветвь правительства Соединенных Штатов – Конгресс – дебатирует законы, по которым живет страна и ее народ..
Через какие этапы проходит законопроект, прежде чем стать законом? Законопроекты могут быть внесены только членами Конгресса, но предложения о новых законодательных мерах могут исходить из самых разных источников. Профсоюзы, женские организации, ассоциации поборников гражданских прав и вообще любые группы особых интересов из любой части страны могут добиваться законов, отвечающих их интересам. Многие законопроектов, рассматриваемые Конгрессом на каждой сессии, поступает из Белого Дома. В начале каждого года Президент намечает свою законодательную программу в особой речи – Послании о положении страны, произносимой на открытии первой сессии Конгресса. Вслед за этим администрация начинает кампанию, чтобы подробно разъяснить цели Президента. Правительственные эксперты подолгу, иногда месяцами совещаются с наиболее влиятельными членами Конгресса и представителями групп особых интересов, помогая вырабатывать законопроекты в соответствии с программой Президента…
После внесения законопроекта эксперты по прохождению законопроектов в обеих палатах предлагают редакционные поправки с целью облегчить прохождение законопроекта, а также консультируют конгрессменов относительно проблем, которые могут возникнуть по предлагаемой мере. Такой эксперт также рассылает законопроект по соответствующим комиссиям и подкомиссиям для обсуждения, внесения поправок, проведения слушаний и наконец голосования.
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Г) От хижины Тома до Барака Обамы. Час пробил …
2008 год от Рождества Христова будет на много веков вписан в историю огромными буквами. Мы - современники грандиозного тектонического сдвига в судьбе человечества. Он вызван сразу двумя факторами, сработавшими одновременно.
Во-первых, уже в общемировом масштабе грянул кризис либеральной экономики, спущенный с поводка после исчезновения коммунистической угрозы. Во-вторых, произошло неожиданное психологическое отторжение американским народом того последнего, что оставалось еще от былой протестантской самонадеянности, - раза всегда и во всем правого американского государства. Этот образ поддерживали президенты, которые неизменно были англосаксами; «белыми дьяволами» по выражению Джека Лондона. У последнего из них, Буша, эта страсть была особенно маниакальной. Но это была агония Очевидно, что цивилизация в ее нынешнем виде в 2008 г. окончила свое существование. Что за человек Обама, мы не знаем. Но мулат Обама ассоциируется с добрым, мягким, человечным дядей Томом. И народ решил сделать Белый дом его хижиной, изгнав из него наломавших дров англоамериканцев. (Виктор Тростников).
4. Discussion Points:
I. Which document is the operation of the US government based on?
2. Explain the function of the different branches of government in the USA.
3. Compare them with those in Britain and the RF.
4. The election of a president is a long and complex process;
. What is the relationship between federal, state, and local governments and what are their responsibilities?
Chapter IV. Education
Read and translate words and word combinations:
literate people to be enrolled in
special emphasis was laid on… the amount spent on education per
capital
residential colleges to reduce the diversity of American
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system of higher education
colleges liberal arts a selection system of admission
mechanical arts written application
school boards and grant submission of a transcript
to oversee less stringent requirements
school policy tuition fee
elementary campus
schools junior high school faculty
middle school professor full
parochial assistant
to attend school instructor
to cover grades major (to major)
extra-curricular activities minor undergrad (ate)
home-economic students freshman (1 year)
consumer education sophomore (II “ – “)
vocational courses junior (III“ – “)
curriculum senior (IV “ – “)
high school schedules graduate (V, VI years)
to measure aptitudes in verbal and mathematical fields associate
to enter a college, university degrees bachelor B. S. E. , B. M. E.
MA, MSC, MBA
PHD
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One of the fundamental parts of the American “Melting Pot or “Americanization” is its education. According to the ideas of the creators of American Constitution the education of their country should reflect the nation’s basic values and ideals. Equality of opportunities for developing the nation’s greatest potential has become the most important aspect of American system of education. As many historians believe a great deal of economic, political, scientific, and cultural progress America has made in its relatively short history is due to its commitment to the ideal of equal opportunity. This is the ideal of educating as many Americans as possible, to the best of their abilities.
Millions of immigrants coming to America often tied their hopes for a better life to a good education for themselves and, most importantly, for their children. They view the Education as a way of “bettering oneself”, of “rising in the world”, as a fundamental part of the American Dream.
In the whole American society there has always been held the belief, that the more schooling a person has, the more material success he or she will achieve in the future. The colonists of Northern and Western states showed a great concern for education. In these states there were many literate people at a time, when education was still uncommon in many countries of Europe. Already in the 17PthP century they required all towns with more than 50 families to provide a schoolmaster at public expense. Other colonies also made provisions for free public schools. In the course of the 17PthP century, for instance, free schools had been established in a number of places such as New Haven, Hartford, New London, and Fairfield. In 1636 more than a hundred years before American independence several Cambridge graduates founded in the Massachusetts Bay Colony the first college, called after the name of Harvard who left it his library and half of his property.
Before the revolution nine colleges of higher learning had been opened in North America: among them the college of William and many in Williamsburg, Virginia, established in 1693, and Yale, founded in 1701. These colonial colleges, which later became universities, were founded to train men for service in the church and civil state. Special emphasis was laid on classical education and only those who knew Latin and Greek were considered educated. American colleges in those days tried to duplicate the English ones, but unlike old English universities they were not self-governing bodies.
The American Revolution brought a lot of changes. The independence of the states raised new questions about what American education should be.
The first state universities were founded, though their flowering did not come until after the Civil War, a century later. Rapid development of industry, agriculture and transportation brought about great changes. The technological needs of agriculture and business stimulated the creation of agricultural and engineering colleges and caused the improvement of the early nineteen-century universities. The mid-nineteenth century saw the foundation of private school known as the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) (1861).
Gradually universities, private or public, became the dominant and most influential structure of higher education, a position they still hold. Many of the oldest and best-known liberal arts colleges, such as Yale, Columbia and Harvard, became universities during this period. By the same time state-supported colleges and universities had been established in many states, including recently settled states such as Florida. Jota and Wisconsin and Michigan.
In 1862, Congress passed a law, which provided states with public (federal) lands to be used for higher education, especially for the establishment of agricultural so-called “cow” and mechanical-arts colleges. Many “land-grant colleges” were established. These new state-supported institutions joined the large number of older, well-established, and well-to-do privately funded universities. They were important in the democratization of higher education in the United States.
By 1900, there were almost a thousand institutions of higher education in the U. S. Among them were law and medical “schools” and hundreds of small, four-year liberal arts colleges. One of the latter, Oberlin College in Ohio, was the first to admit women on an equal basis with men, in 1837. There were many other institutions of higher learning, which emphasized everything from the training of teachers to the pulling of teeth.
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The United States have never had a national system of education although there is a Federal Department of Education, which in some ways corresponds to the Russian ministry of Education, its function is merely to gather information, to advise, and to help finance certain educational programs. Education, Americans say, is “a national concern, a state responsibility, and a local function”. Since the Constitution does not state that education is a responsibility of the federal government, all education matters are left to the individual states.
In turn, however, state constitutions give the actual administrative control of the schools to the local communities. In 1986, an average of 50 percent of the funds for elementary and secondary education came from state sources, 43 percent from local funds, and only about 6 percent the federal government. There are some 16, 000 school districts within the 50 states. School boards made up of individual citizens elected from each community oversee the schools in each district. They, not the state, set school policy and actually decide what is to be taught.
The major result of this situation is that there is an enormous amount of variety and flexibility in elementary, secondary, and higher (university) education throughout the nation.
Elementary and Secondary Education.
Because of the great variety of schools and the many differences among them, no one institution can be singled out as typical or even representative.
There exist private and public schools. Since separation of church and state is a principle of American democracy and therefore religion cannot be taught in state-supported schools, there are also many parochial schools, which are supported by the church. These are often Catholic, but there are Protestant and Jewish schools as well.
Because of the inequalities inherent in society as a whole, however, the goal of equal opportunity in education remains an ideal rather than a reality. As the tuition fees are rather high in private schools they are attended primarily by upper-class children. The reason why parents send their children to these schools is that they often believe they will receive a better education in them and/or they will associate with other children of their own background. However, these private schools are few in number, and they do not by any means displace the public schools, which are truly the central educational institution in the United States.
Today there are 6 million pupils in private schools and 43 million pupils and students in public schools at the elementary and secondary levels throughout the country. In other words 88 percent of American children attend public schools and only 12 percent go to private schools.
The divisions or stages a child passes in his school educational ladder are elementary, junior high school or middle school, and high school. American children begin to attend school by the age of five or six. There are also pre-school classes called kindergarten. Before this they may attend nursery school or a day care center.
Schooling is divided into twelve academic levels or grades, each of which lasts one year. Elementary school usually covers grades one through six or seven. Middle school or junior high school is from grades seven to nine or seven to eight. The concluding three or four grades form high school.
There are more or less definite demands at each level. In some areas and at more advanced levels, students can choose some subject. Students take classes in major subjects such as English, Math, History and Science. They must also take classes in physical education and a foreign language. Then they can usually choose an elective in subjects like art or music. At the end of term students get a grade of A, B, C, D, or F (fail) foe each subject. Grades are based on test scores, class participation, and class and homework assignments. As they finish each class in a subject students get a credit. When they have enough pf these, they can go further.
The apostle of American school education is considered to be John Dewey. This philosopher and educator believed that conveying factual information to students is secondary
to teaching them thinking processes and skills, which they will use in the future. He also greatly influenced teaching techniques by stressing that activity and experimentation should come first. So, in American schools much attention is given to creative activities. Students are encouraged to be creative both during class time and extra-curricular hours.
American high schools try to adapt to the needs of society. Learning computer skills starts early. As life is becoming more complex, new subjects are introduced. Schools are initiating programs previously viewed as a part of home education. These include subjects such as driver’s education, sewing and cooking classes called home economics, consumer education, and health and sex education, where issues like drug and alcohol abuse and smoking may be treated.
American high schools offer different branches of education for their students. The public school tries to bring more minority children into advanced levels of university education and into the professions. Some might be following pre-university programs, with an emphasis on those academic subjects required for college work. Others might well be taking coursework, which prepares them for vocational or technical positions.
In addition to bilingual and bicultural education programs, many schools have special programs for those with learning and reading difficulties. Many schools also support summer classes, where students can make up for failed courses or even take extra courses. They also attempt to integrate students with varying abilities and backgrounds into an educational system shared by all. At the same time, many high school students are given special advanced coursework in sciences. Nationwide talent searches for minority group children with special abilities and academic promise began on a large scale in the 1960s.
Like schools in Britain and other English-speaking countries, those in the U. S. have also always stressed “character” or “social skills” through extracurricular activities, including organized sports. Because most schools start at around 8 o’clock every morning and classes often do not finish until 3 or 4 o’clock in the afternoon, such activities mean that many students do not return home until the early evening. There is usually a very broad range of extracurricular activities available. Most schools, for instance, publish their own student newspapers, and some have their own radio stations. Almost all have student orchestras, bands, and choirs, which give public performances. There are theater and drama groups, chess and debating clubs, Latin, French, Spanish, or German clubs, groups which meet after school to discuss computers, or chemistry, or amateur radio, or the raising of prize horses, and cows. Students can learn flying, skin-diving, and mountain - climbing. They can act as volunteers in hospitals and homes for the aged and do other public-service work.
Often the students themselves organize and support school activities and raise money through “car washes”, baby-sitting, bake sales, or by mowing lawns. Parents and local businesses often also help a group that, for example, has a chance to go to a state championship, or take a camping trip. Such activities not only give pupils a chance to be together outside of normal classes, they also help develop a feeling of “school spirit” among the students and in the community.
Whichever varieties of school curricula exist all of them envisage standardized examinations at every level of education.
There are two widely used and nationally administered tests for high school students who wish to attend a college or university. One is the SAT (Scholastic Aptitude Test), which attempts to measure aptitudes in verbal and mathematical fields through multiple-choice questions marked by computer. The other is the ACT (American College Testing program), which attempts to measure skills in English, mathematics, and the social and natural sciences. Both tests are given at specific dates and locations throughout the U. S. by non-profit, non-governmental organizations. The tests are used by universities as standards for comparison, but are not in any way “official”.
Each year, the SAT is taken by some two million high school students. One million of these students are in their last year of high school. Another million are in their next-to-last year. The ACT, more commonly used in the western part of the U. S., is taken each year by another million high school students. With so many different types of high schools and programs, with so many differences in subjects and standards, these tests provide common, nationwide measuring sticks. Many universities publish the average scores achieved on these tests by the students they admit. This indicates the “quality” or level of ability expected of those who apply.
Needless to say, those children who have attended better schools, or who come from families with better educated parents; often have an advantage over those who don’t. This remains a problem in the U. S., where equality of opportunity is a central cultural goal. Not surprisingly, the members of racial minorities are the most deprived in this respect.
Higher Education.
According to American statistics over 41 percent of high school leavers apply to colleges and universities. Every year, about 12 million Americans are enrolled in the over 3, 000 colleges and universities of every type: private, public, church-related, small and large, in cities, counties, and states. Close to 80 percent of the college students attend public institutions, while a little over 20 percent are enrolled in privately supported universities and colleges. United Nations figures (1980) show that in the amount spent on education per capita, the U. S. is in ninth place in the world (behind Qatar, Sweden, Norway, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Denmark, Switzerland, and Canada).
Every state in the US maintains at least one institution of university rank. Programs in them are often adapted to serve local needs. State universities provide opportunities of higher education usually at a cost considerably below the cost of education in private institutions.
The institutions, which provide higher education, do not constitute any coordinate system and are not controlled by any centralized national authority. Each state has the right to found new public or private institutions of higher education within its borders. However, cooperative efforts of colleges and universities have created a number of unifying factors, which reduce the diversity of American system of higher education.
The Types of Higher Educational Institutions:
Junior Colleges (The world “college” refers either to an independent institution offering undergraduate education or to a part of a university, such as a College of Arts and Sciences or a College of Engineering). These institutions of higher education offer two-year programs beyond the secondary school level. Courses are divided into two programs, one leading to a transfer to a four-year college at the end of two years, the other intended to be terminal at the completion of the junior college, usually leading to a profession (shop work, office work, etc. )
Colleges of Liberal Arts, which generally offer four years of work beyond the secondary school level. Their programs are aimed at providing a broad educational base in philosophy, science, and culture. Course work is often organized so that students may choose some specialization or concentration in one particular field during the third and fourth years of the program. Some of these colleges are private; others are run by the state.
Specialized Institutions are usually institutions of technology, teacher training colleges, art schools, and other specialized institutions emphasize intensive concentration in a specialty as contrasted with the board range of liberal arts colleges. The course of study typically emphasizes technical, scientific, or engineering aspects of knowledge in the field. Today, the educational programs of some specialized institutions are broader and more comprehensive. In fact, some of them have changed their names, aims and programs to fit a university type of organization.
A University. An American university, having the most complex organization of all American institutions of higher education, consists of a number of schools and colleges at both levels: the undergraduate school and the graduate school. These are grouped together in one educational system. A distinctive feature of American universities is the separation of graduate from undergraduate education.
Of the nation’s 1, 900 institutions of higher learning roughly one-third are state or city institutions. About 1, 200 are privately controlled. Approximately 700 of these are controlled by religious groups. Less than half of these institutions are liberal art colleges and universities, which stress the languages, history, science and philosophy. The rest are professional and technological schools and junior colleges.
The American ideal of mass education for all is matched by the understanding that America needs highly trained specialists. In higher education and especially in very prestigious universities the U. S. has a selective system of admission. Acceptance into the university is based on a written application, submission of a transcript showing all courses in previously-attended educational institutions, evidence that the student satisfactorily completed all requirements at the previously-attended institution, and sometimes an oral interview or written resume at the school which the student desires to attend. Different schools of higher learning may have different standards of acceptance: some may require excellent grades on the S. A. T., while others may have less stringent requirements. Smaller schools usually like to orally interview the students before making a decision to accept him or her. This allows the school to have a close look at each student, his personality, and to make sure that the school will meet the student’s goals.
At the undergraduate level universities may have several divisions - colleges of liberal arts, a school of business or engineering or applied science, etc. A student usually enrolls in one undergraduate division, but he may take courses in more than one of these.
A full-time undergraduate degree usually takes four years. Many students study part-time and work, so it may take them much longer time to finish. Some students first take an associate’s degree at a community college, where the tuition fees are lower and study two more years at a four-year college to complete their bachelor’s degree.
Students are classified as freshmen, sophomores, juniors and seniors. A freshmen is a first year student, a sophomer, a second year student, a junior, a third year student, and a senior, a fourth year student.
Most undergraduate students must take liberal arts classes in English, Math, History, and a science. They choose a major (specialize) in a subject such as business, education, or art in their third year of college or after they have completed half of their course work. Students must complete a survey course in American History or American Government in order to receive any degree from the University.
To graduate from a university requires a student to complete requirements of the university, to achieve the minimum allowable grade in the required courses, and to collect the required number of so-called credits. There is wide variation in the requirements depending on which university you look at. In general, universities and colleges require students to fulfill a set of general requirements applicable to all students at the school (specialization), as well as fulfilling the specific requirements for their major field of study. For example, at Haverford College they require 32 credits for graduation, 1 credit being awarded for each course taken and passed per semester. So, 4 credits per semester and 2 semesters per year equals 8 credits per year. Four years of college education multiplied by 8 credits per year equals 32 credits, or the amount needed to graduate. However, the Linguistics Department requires 10 credits of linguistics courses in order to be eligible for the Bachelor of Arts degree in Linguistics. As a result, it is necessary to fulfill both requirements before being allowed to graduate, i. e. pass 32 credits of courses, 10 of which must be in the Linguistics Department.
In addition, most universities require a minimum grade-point average before the students is allowed to graduate. This means that all of the grades over the entire four years are averaged; if this average is less than the minimum, the student may not graduate.
There are four principal types of academic degrees, each representing a different level of academic achievement:
The associate degree is conferred upon the completion of two years of organized program of general, pre-professional, or semiprofessional work.
The bachelor’s (baccalaureate) degree is the oldest academic degree used in various forms by almost every institution offering four or more years All students who have graduated and received the bachelor’s degree are classified as advanced students or graduate students. Their transcript of grades is submitted with all applications to graduate schools. To meet high tuition fees most graduate student’s work and study.
Some graduate students receive grants, which cover the cost of their education; a person on such a fellowship is called a university fellow or a grantee.
The most common master’s degree program represents a minimum of 1 year of work beyond the baccalaureate. In certain areas this has been extended to 2 years of required graduate study (e. g. in business administration) or even 3 years (e. g. in fine arts). It may also involve one or all of the following additional requirements: a thesis, a general examination, and mastery of a foreign language. The master’s degree candidate follows a rather specific course of study, usually in a single field and arranged in cooperation with his adviser. This is not, however, considered to be a research degree, but rather preparation for the PhD. In certain cases it is bypassed by students going for PhD, but may be granted as a consolation prize to those who fail to quality for the doctorate.
Master of Arts in Teaching (MAT) is one of the more rapidly growing; it is designed to prepare liberal arts graduate for secondary school teaching. Normally neither a language examination nor a thesis is required for MAT, but course in practical teaching is usually incorporated.
The earned doctorate is the most advanced degree conferred by American institutions. Doctoral programs usually consist of at least 3 years of study beyond the baccalaureate. There are 2 quite distinct types of doctoral programs: the professional degree and the research degree. The first type represents advanced training for the practice of a given profession, such as the Doctor of Medicine, the Doctor of Dental Science, and similar degrees. These degrees do not imply original research.
The research doctorate (PhD) is the highest earned degree in the American graduate school. Candidates usually follow a program of studies concentrated in one of the major fields of knowledge. They are normally required to demonstrate reading proficiency in at least two foreign languages. After a student has satisfactorily completed his course work and met his foreign language requirements, he must take a comprehensive examination to demonstrate a general knowledge of his field. It may be oral or written or both, and is evaluated by a special committee to determine whether he is prepared to undertake his dissertation (it is usually the preliminary, or qualifying, examination). The final period of predoctoral study is given over largely to the preparation of the dissertation (this may require several years to finish). A final examination is required at most universities after the dissertation and other requirements for the degree have been completed.
According to tradition, the prospective doctor of philosophy should defend the conclusions of his dissertation. Consequently, it is frequently the custom to make public announcements of the date and place of the final examination and to permit the attendance of any scholars who may wish to participate. At one time, it was not uncommon for universities to require that doctoral dissertation be published, but the increased expense in printing costs as well as the increase in the number of dissertations have made such a requirements quite rare.
| 18 years old to 21 years to | 1PstP year-freshman 2PndP year-sophomore 3d year-junior 4PthP year-senior | College or University Undergraduate Education (bachelor’s degree) | |
| 2 years | Master’s program | Graduate or Professional Education | |
| 3 to 6 years | Professional school (law, medicine) | ||
| 3 to 5 year | Doctoral program (after M. A. program) | ||
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