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Cultural Differences Affecting Negotiations
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Americans have а negotiation style that often differs from that of many other countries. Americans believe that it is important to be factual and objective. In addition, they оften make early concessions to show the other party that they are flexible and reasonable. Moreover, U.S. negotiators typically have authority to bind their party to an agreement, so if the right deal is struck the matter can be resolved quickly. This is why deadlines are so important to Americans. They have соmе to do business, and they want to get things resolved immediately.
А comparative example would bе the Arabs, who, in contrast to the logical approach of the Americans, tend to use an emotional appeal in their negotiation style. They analyze things subjectively and treat deadlines as only general guidelines for wrapping up negotiations. They tend to open negotiations with an extreme initial position. However, the Arabs believe strongly in making concessions, they do so throughout the bargaining process, and they almost always reciprocate an opponent's concessions. They also seek to build а long-term relationship with their bargaining partners. For these reasons, Americans typically find it easier to negotiate with Arabs than with representatives from many other regions of the world.
Before beginning аnу negotiations, review the negotiating style of the parties. (Table 4-3 provides some insights regarding negotiation styles of the Japanese and North and South Americans.) This review should help answer certain questions: What can we expect the other side to say and do? How are they likely to respond to certain offers? When should the most important matters be introduced? How quickly should concessions bе made, and what type of rесiрrосitу should be expected? These types of questions help to effectively prepare the negotiators.
| NEGOTIATION STYLES FROM А CROSS-CULTURAL PERSPECTIVE | ||
| Japanese | North American | South American |
| Emotional sensitivity highly valued | Emotional sensitivity not highly valued | Emotional sensitivity valued |
| Hiding of emotions | Dealing straightforwardly or impersonally | Emotionally passionate |
| Subtle power plays; conciliation | Litigation not as much as conciliation | Great power plays; use of weakness |
| Loyalty to employer; employer takes care of its employees | Lack of commitment to employer; breaking of ties by either if necessary | Loyalty to employer (who is often family) |
| Group decision-making consensus | Teamwork provides input to а decision maker | Decisions come down from one individual |
| Face-saving crucial; decisions often made on basis of saving someone from embarrassment | Decisions made on а cost-benefit basis; face saving does not always matter | Face saving crucial in decision making to preserve honor, dignity |
| Decision makers openly influenced by special interests | Decision makers influenced by special interests, which often is not considered ethical | Execution of special interests of decision maker expected, condoned |
| Not argumentative; quiet when right | Argumentative when right or wrong, but impersonal | Argumentative when right or wrong; passionate |
| What is down in writing must be accurate, valid | Great importance given to documentation as evidential proof | Impatient with documentation as obstacle to understanding general principles |
| Step-by-step approach to decision making | Methodically organized decision making | Impulsive, spontaneous decision making |
| Good of group is the ultimate aim | Profit motive or good of individual ultimate aim | What is good for group is good for the individual |
| Cultivate а good emotional social setting for decision making; get to know decision makers | Decision making impersonal; avoid involvements, conflict of interest | Personalism necessary for good decision making |
Studying the words
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1. An appeal (n) – просьба, обращение
To make an appeal to smb for smth – обращаться к кому-либо за чем-либо
To make an appeal for help – молить о помощи
2. Argumentative (adj) – любящий спорить
Ex. When he drinks, too much he becomes argumentative
Syn. quarrelsome
Ex. Paul has always had a quarrelsome nature.
3. To bind (bound - bound) (v) – обязывать (законом), связывать (договором)
e.g. His word binds him to good behaviour – данное им слово обязывает его хорошо себя вести.
e.g. The court’s decision binds them to pay the fine – по решению суда они обязаны уплатить штраф.
To bind smb to an agreement – подвести кого-либо к заключению соглашения.
Binding (adj.) – обязывающий, обязательный.
Ex. These are guidelines only and are not binding on any party.
4. A commitment (n) – обязательство,
Treaty commitments – договорные обязательства
To meet commitments – выполнять обязательства
Commitment to smb./smth – преданность, верность, самоотверженность, рвение кому – либо / чему – либо.
Ex. Thanks to your energy and commitment, the project was a great success.
5. Conciliation (n) –примирение
6. Crucial (adj)-решающий
A crucial question (test, experiment)
Syn. vital /significant
7. A deadline (n) – предельный, конечный срок.
To meet the deadline – уложиться в срок
To miss the deadline – не успеть, не уложиться в срок
8. To influence smth / smb (v) – влиять, оказывать влияние, воздействие на что – либо, кого – либо.
Ex. The Revolution of 1789 influenced events far beyond France.
Influence (n) – влияние, воздействие
Under the influence of smb. – под влиянием кого – либо
To have an influence over / on smb. – иметь влияние на кого – либо
9. To lack smth. (v) – испытывать недостаток в чем – либо, нуждаться в чем – либо.
to lack courage – не иметь достаточного мужества
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To lack wit – не хватает ума
He lacks words to express his than ks – ему не хватает слов для выражения благодарности
He lacks nothing - у него есть все
Lack (n) – недостаток, нехватка
Lack of money – недостаток денег
To feel the lack of smth. – ощущать недостаток в чем – либо
10. Litigation (n) – судебный процесс, тяжба
11. An obstacle (n) – препятствие, помеха, преграда
To be an obstacle to smth. – быть помехой чему – либо
To overcome obstacles – преодолевать препятствия
Ex. The greatest obstacle to economic progress has been mass unemployment
12. To reciprocate (v) – отвечать взаимностью
To reciprocate smb’s feelings – отвечать чьим – либо чувствам
To reciprocate hostility – испытывать взаимную вражду
To reciprocate good wishes – обмениваться добрыми пожеланиями
Ex. We asked them over for dinner, hoping they world reciprocate.
Reciprocal (adj) – взаимный, обоюдный
Reciprocal concessions – взаимные уступки
To seek (sought - sought) to do smth. (v) – пытаться, стараться что-либо сделать, стремиться к чему-либо
To seek smth. – добиваться чего-либо
13. Subtle (adj) – едва различимый, трудно уловимый, тонкий
A subtle distinction – тонкое различие
Subtle charm – неуловимое обаяние
Ex. At first, we did not notice the subtle changes in his character
14. Ultimate (adj) – a) последний, окончательный
An ultimate result – окончательный результат
An ultimate decision – окончательное решение
15. Valid (adj) – a) обоснованный, веский
A valid argument – убедительный вывод
A valid reason – веская причина
A valid claim – обоснованная претензия
б) имеющий законную силу
A valid argument – соглашение имеющее законную силу
Ex. Is your passport still valid?
16. To value smth. (v) – оценивать, давать оценку
Ex. Vitamins and minerals are valued for their protective and energy – giving qualities.
Value (n) – ценность, важность, полезность, стоимость
Ex. The value of land is rising all the time.
To set a high value on smth. – высоко ценить что – либо
To set a low value on smth – не придавать большого значения чему – либо
Valuable (adj) – ценный, дорогостоящий
A valuable diamond – брильянт большой ценности
Valuable advice – полезный совет
Ex. Do not lose this ring – it’s very valuable.
I. Comprehension check.
Practice 1.
Answer the following questions.
1. Whose negotiation style is characterized by a slow approach to decision-making?
2. What is the ultimate aim in negotiation for North Americans?
3. How are South Americans likely to responds to the idea of going through the documents once again to brush every thing up?
4. What is the difference in the approach to face-saving in decision-making with the Japanese/North Americans/South Americans?
5. Why do Americans typically find it easier to negotiate with Arabs that with representatives from many other regions of the world?
6. When should the most important matters be introduced with the Americans?
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7. What type of reciprocity should be expected from the Arabs?
8. How quickly are Americans likely to make concessions?
9. How do the Japanese/the North Americans/the South Americans manifest their national traits in negotiation?
10. What degree of commitment to employer is typical for the Japanese/the North Americans/the South Americans?
Practice 2.
Having an idea of negotiation styles from a cross-cultural perspective decide on the mode of negotiation behavior for the 1) Japanese, 2) the North Americans, 3) the South Americans from a), b), c).
a) Attentive to documentation, quiet and reserved, committed to employer, friendly, respectful, substantial in decision-making
b) Committed to employer, impulsive, passionate, argumentative, respecting the leading role of one individual
c) Impersonal, ready to make early concessions, argumentative, well-organized attentive to documentation, punctual, factual
II. Language work.
Practice 3
Find in the text English equivalents for the following word combinations:
Использовать обращение к эмоциям, групповое принятие решений, «сохранение лица», идти на уступки, заключить сделку, иметь полномочия, стиль переговорного процесса, завершить переговоры строить долгосрочные отношения, решить вопрос быстро, общее руководство, постепенный (пошаговый, поэтапный), подход к принятию решений., отсутствие лояльности по отношению к работодателю.
Practice 4
Match the words (1-8) with their definitions in the bubbles (a-j)
1. Binding, 2. Valid, 3. Commitment, 4. An appeal, 5. An obstacle, 6. Valuable, 7.Argumentative, 8. Influence, 9.Subtle, 10. A deadline
Practice 5
Think of suitable words for the following definitions.
1. Willingness to give time / energy to smth
2. To finish some work within the time that you have been allowed to do it, especially when it is very important that it is done by that time.
3. To not have any or enough of something you need of want
4. To try to achieve something, especially something which may take a long time but which you think is important.
5. A process that is intended to end an argument between two groups of people
6. To react to someone’s feelings or actions to wards you by showing the same things for them.
Practice 6
Suggest the English for:
1. выполнять финансовые обязательства,
2. не закончить что-либо вовремя,
3. повлиять на процесс принятия решений,
4. не испытывать ни в чём-либо недостатка,
5. стремиться к заключению сделки,
6. добиться успеха в преодолении помех,
7. чувствовать обоюдную неприязнь,
8. взывать к эмоциям,
9. научиться ценить обычные вещи в жизни.
Practice 7.
Explain what you understand by:
An argumentative person;
A binding argument;
A crucial concession;
A subtle difference;
An ultimate aim;
A valid claim.
Practice 8.
Translate the following sentences into Russian.
1. A particularly argumentative section of the committee kept raising objections to the proposals.
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2. His contract is legally binding; he must stay here for the next two years whether he wants to or not.
3. The Wednesday deadline passed without any communication from the leader of the opposition.
4. Experience is, of course, a crucial factor in deciding who would be the best person for the job.
5. They are appealing to local businesses for sponsorship money.
6. We could not find his passports but it was not for lack of trying.
7. I do not want to take on any more commitments.
8. The public relations experts seek to influence public opinion with clever advertising campaigns.
9. People who arrive in this country without valid immigration papers may be send home.
10. Homework is negatively valued as a retreat from a disliked alternative – employment work.
11. Lack of money has proved an almost insurmountable obstacle.
12. Health education programmers are starting to influence people’s eating habits.
Practice 9.
Complete the following sentences using necessary prepositions.
1. A national newspaper yesterday made an appeal … the government … information regarding a journalist who went missing in Iraq.
2. By now, we had begun to realize that her commitment … the teams had gone and she was losing interest.
3. The future level … fuel prices will have a major influence … energy policy.
4. The huge distances involved have proved an obstacle … communication … villages.
5. They lost the game, but not … lack … trying.
6. Secrecy is crucial … this police operation.
7. It’s herd to set a value … a company … large assets and turnover but low profits.
8. The decisions of the European Court are binding … the United Kingdom.
Practice 10.
Insert missing words. Try to use your active vocabulary.
1. Ministers set a …… of 5 April for Serbia to accept the peace plan
2. Teachers have considerable ……… on what is taught in the classroom.
3. Perhaps you simply ……. the intelligence to realize just how serious this is.
4. I would like to…….. your fine hospitality.
5. Their ……… destination was Paris.
6. It was the community in which people respected their elders and ………. their knowledge and experience.
7. We believe the question being investigated by the Commission is one of ………. Importance to the country.
8. Tiredness was the biggest ………… in the way of their attempt to rescue the climbers.
9. The government still has not produced a ……… argument in favour of its policies on immigration.
10. For over two decades the USA ………. to prevent the spread of communism in South-East Asia.
11. Rail passengers travailing without a ………. tickets will have to pay a fine of 100.
Practice 11.
Replace the underlined words with the most suitable ones from your active vocabulary.
1. The important factor in their relationship was their unshakeable faith in each other.
2. Paul has always had a quarrelsome and violent nature.
3. The decision-making process will be free from outside effect.
4. We have a strict system of tests to select the best candidates.
5. The law must try to protect the democratic rights of citizens.
6. I think your assessment of the current economic situation is pretty accurate.
7. He admitted that his failure was caused by not enough determination.
8. Although he valued her friendship, he wasn’t capable of reacting to her feelings of love similarly.
9. I detected a small change in his attitude to wards us.
Practice 12.
Translate the following sentences into English.
1. Автор пытается продемонстрировать влияние звёзд на жизнь людей
2. К сожалению, у нас обязательное соглашение с правительством, которое не может быть нарушено
3. Мы будем хорошо вам платить, а в ответ ожидаем от вас лояльности и полной самоотдачи
4. Нам не предложат другой контракт, если мы не уложимся в срок
5. Я не могу выполнить эту работу сейчас из-за (в силу) других обязательств
6. Они обратились непосредственно к правительству за финансированием
7. Переговоры имеют решающее значение для успеха нашего плана
8. Договор обязывает каждую страну снизить уровень загрязнения окружающей среды
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9. Мы обменялись приглашениями
10. Совершенно естественно, что идеи родителей влияют на детей
11. Ему не хватало умений, требуемых для такой работы
12. Я рассказал ей все о себе, но она не была готова ответить взаимностью
13. Наша экономическая политика направлена на (стремиться к) создание рабочих мест и увеличению производительности труда
14. Он был настроен преодолеть все препятствия на своем пути
15. Это предложение действительно до конца апреля
16. Я ценю ее очень высоко как друга
UNIT 3
Negotiation Tactics
А number of specific tactics are used in international negotiating. The
following examines some of the most common.
Location Where should negotiations take place? If the matter is very important, most businesses will choose а neutral site. For example, U.S. firms negotiating with companies from the Far East will meet in Hawaii. South American companies negotiating with European firms will meet half way, say in New York City. А number of benefits derive from using а neutral site. One is that each party has limited access to its home office for receiving а great deal of negotiating information and advice and thus gaining an advantage on the other. A second is that the cost of staying at the site is often quite high, so both sides have an incentive to conclude their negotiations as quickly as possible. (Of course, if one side enjoys the facilities and,
would like to stay as long as possible, the negotiations could drag on.) А third is that most negotiators do not like to return home with nothing to show for their efforts, so they are motivated to reach some type of agreement.
Time Limits Time limits are an important negotiation tactic when one of the parties is under а time constraint. This is particularly true when this, party has agreed to meet at the home site of the other party. For example, U.S. negotiators who go to London to discuss а joint venture with а British firm will often have а scheduled returned flight. Once their hosts find out how long these individuals intend to stay, the British can plan their strategy accordingly. The "real" negotiations are unlikely to begin until dose to the time that the Americans must leave. The British know that their guests will bе anxious to strike some type of deal before returning home, so the Americans are at а disadvantage. Time limits can be used tactically even if the negotiators meet on at a аneutral site. For example, most Americans like to be home with their family for Thanksgiving, Christmas, and the New Year holiday. Negotiations held right before these dates put the Americans at а disadvantage because the other party knows when the Americans would like to leave.
Buyer-Seller Relations How should buyers and sellers act? As pointed out, Americans believe in being objective and trading favors. When the negotiations are over, Americans walk away with what they have received from the other party, and they expect the other party to do the same. However, this is not the way negotiators in many other countries think. The Japanese, for example, believe that the buyers should get most of what they want. On the other hand, they also believe that the seller should be taken care of through reciprocal favors. The buyer has to ensure that the seller has not been "picked clean." For example, when many Japanese firms first started doing business with large U.S. firms, they were unaware of U.S. negotiating tactics. As а result, the Japanese thought the Americans were taking advantage of them, and the Americans believed they were driving а good, hard bargain.
The Brazilians are quite different from both the Americans and the Japanese. Researchers have found that Brazilians do better when they are more deceptive and self-interested and their opponents are more open and honest than they, Brazilians also tend to make fewer promises and commitments than their opponents, and they are much more prone to saying no. However, Brazilians are more likely to make initial concessions. Overall, the Brazilians are more like the Americans than the Japanese in that they try to maximize their advantage, but they are unlike the Americans in that they do not feel obligated to be open and forthright in their approach. Whether they are the buyer or the seller, they want to come out on top.
Studying the words
1. Access to smth (n) – доступ к чему-либо.
ex. The new computer provides access to all the files.
To gain/get access to smth – получить доступ к чему-либо.
Accessible (adj) – доступный, достижимый.
Ex. The beach should be accessible to everyone.
Ex. Their goal was to make adult education more accessible.
2. Aware of smth – (о)сознающий, знающий, осведомленный о чем-либо.
To be aware of danger – сознавать опасность.
To be aware of complete failure – отдавать себе отчет о полном провале.
To make smb aware of smth – познакомить кого-либо с чем-либо, рассказать кому-либо о чем-либо.
Unaware – не знающий, не подозревающий, не осознающий.
Ex. He is unaware of it
Ex. They are unaware of danger
3. A constraint (n) – ограничение
Financial budget constraint – финансовые бюджетные ограничения.
A time constraint – ограничение во время, временные рамки.
To be under a time constraint – быть ограниченным во времени.
To put/place constraints on smth. – установить ограничения на что-либо
Ex. To put constraints on presidential power
Syn. limits/restrictions.
To constrain (v) – сдерживать, ограничивать.
Ex. We are always constrained by our budget.
4. Deceptive (adj) – обманчивый, вводящий в заблуждение.
Deceptive weather – обманчивая погода
Deceptive looks – обманчивая наружность
To deceive (v) – обманывать, вводить в заблуждение.
Ex. During the war both sides sent false code messages to deceive the enemy.
5. To ensure – обеспечивать, гарантировать.
To ensure success – гарантировать успех.
To ensure independence – обеспечить безопасность
6. A favour – одолжение, любезность, милость, уступка.
To do smb a favour – сделать кому-либо одолжение.
Ex. As a personal favour to me, please don’t release my story to the press.
Favour (u) – поддержка, помощь, содействие.
Ex. Her political views haven’t found favour in recent years.
In favour of smth/smb – в защиту чего-либо/кого-либо; в пользу чего-либо/кого-либо.
Ex. He is strongly in favour of capital punishment.
7. Forthright (adj.) книжн. – откровенный, прямолинейный, честный.
Ex. She was by nature forthright and impatient.
Syn. honest.
8. To point smth out (v) – указывать на что-либо; выделять что-либо.
To point out mistakes – указать на ошибки.
To point out that…. – обращать внимание, указывать, подчеркивать.
Ex. He pointed out the best beaches on the map.
Ex. His wife pointed out that none of them were exactly starving.
9. Prone to smth (adj.) – склонный, предрасположенный к чему-либо.
Prone to hasty conclusions – склонный к поспешным заключениям.
Prone to anger – вспыльчивый.
Ex. Some people are prone to accidents – есть люди, с которыми вечно что-то случается
10. Obliged – обязанный, вынужденный, принужденный.
Ex. We are obliged to remind you… - мы вынуждены напомнить вам…
I don’t want to be obliged to him for anything – я не хочу ни в чем быть ему обязанным.
To oblige (v) – обязывать, заставлять.
Ex. The law obliges parents to send their children to school.
11. A benefit (n) – преимущество, привилегия.
Ex. This could bring real benefits for teachers.
Benefit (u) – выгода, польза, прибыль.
Ex. The book wasn’t of much benefit.
To me – книга не принесла мне особенной пользы.
To derive/get/obtain/receive benefit – извлекать, получать пользу/прибыль.
For the benefit of smb/smth – на благо/в пользу кого-либо/ чего-либо.
For the benefit of children – ради детей.
To benefit from smth (v) – получать пользу, помощь.
Ex. We benefited directly from the reorganization.
Beneficial (adj.) – полезный, благотворный.
A beneficial effect – благотворное воздействие.
I. Comprehension check.
Practice 1.
Answer the following questions.
1. Why will most parties choose a neutral site in case of important negotiations?
2. How can time limits put one of the parties at a disadvantage?
3. What are the main motives for concluding negotiations as quickly as possible?
4. What is different in Japanese and American approaches to buyer-seller relations?
5. What is different in Brazilian and American approaches to buyer-seller relations?
6. Whose approach – American – Brazilian – Japanese to buyer-seller relations do you find more acceptable for doing business?
7. If a service-oriented US firm decided to discuss a joint venture with a client in France, would it be advisable for the two to meet in Paris during the week of December 18th to discuss the matter and strike a final agreement?
Practice 2.
Complete the following sentences on the basis of the information given in the text.
1. One of the benefits from using a neutral site for negotiations is that…
2. Because of a high cost of staying at a negotiation site both sides are inclined to…
3. One of the motives to conclude an agreement is that…
4. Time limits can be used tactically when…
5. In terms of buyer-seller relations Americans belive that…
6. Unlike the Americans and the Japanese the Brazilians are…
7. The Brazilians are closer to the Americans in…
Practice 3.
Find in the text English equivalents for the following word combinations:
Получить преимущество над другой стороной, обсудить совместное предприятие, иметь ограниченный доступ к информации, находиться в невыгодном положении, встретиться на нейтральной территории, быть обобранным дочиста, выйти победителем в споре/состязании, обоюдные уступки, быть неосведомленным о переговорной тактике другой стороны.
II. Language work.
Practice 4.
Match the words (1-8) with their definitions in the bubbles (a-j)
1. Favour, 2. Unaware, 3. Deceptive, 4. Accessible, 5. Obliged,
6. Access, 7. A benefit.
Practice 5.
Think of suitable words for the following definitions.
1. facts or conditions that limit what you can do, for example not having enough time, money.
2. something that you do for someone in order to help them.
3. likely to do something or be affected by something.
4. to make certain that something happens or is done.
5. so honest when telling your opinions or feelings that some people think you’re rude.
6. easy for anyone to obtain and use.
7. knowing about a situation or a fact.
8. to force someone to do something because it is the law, a rule, or a duty
Practice 6.
Suggest the English for:
1. иметь обманчивый вид
2. обеспечить безопасные условия работы
3. подчеркнуть преимущества и недостатки проекта
4. быть подверженным плохому влиянию
5. быть обязанным по закону оплатить долги
6. иметь доступ к секретной информации
7. быть хорошо осведомленным об имеющихся проблемах
8. потерять поддержку среди большинства населения
9. воспользоваться преимуществами нового метода
10. получать значительную прибыль от сделки
11. иметь благотворное влияние на ход переговоров.
Practice 7.
Translate the following sentences into Russian.
1. The charity aims to create a new generation of environmentally aware consumers and producers.
2. It’s important to ensure that delegates have been properly briefed.
3. The cartoon strips are designed to make Shakespeare accessible to children.
4. This piece of software has two points in it’s favour: it’s fast and inexpensive.
5. The M40 through Oxfordshire is notoriously prone to fog.
6. Their search for the place to live was constrained by limited time and money.
7. He was finally granted access to proper medical care.
8. Appearances can be deceptive – dangerously deceptive.
9. Thanks very much. I’ll return the favour one day.
10. Cigarette advertisements in magazines carry a health warning because they are obliged to.
11. The motor industry will be one of the first to enjoy the benefits of the recovery.
Practice 8.
Complete the following sentences using necessary prepositions.
1. Sam was unaware … the fact that they were laughing … him.
2. He pointed … that we had two hours … free time … dinner.
3. Access … up-to-date financial information is important … our success.
4. There are major financial constraints … all schools.
5. We shall do this … the benefit … the parents.
6. There are no good roads … the area so most … the ruches are only a accessible … jeep or other off-road vehicles.
7. Early … his musical career he abandoned blues … favors.. jazz.
8. The disease had left her weak and prone … all kinds … infections.
Practice 9.
Insert missing words. Try to use your active vocabulary.
1. Research is often … by lack of sufficient dates.
2. The sea here is very … it looks rate but is in fact very dangerous.
3. The costs involved will outweigh any … gained.
4. One or two glasses of wine a day can be ….
5. As far as I am …, he didn’t say anything of the kind.
6. The city is easily … by road, rail or air.
7. You were right to … that this is only one of the difficulties we face.
8. Part of the school was closed because of financial ….
9. As an examiner, she showed no … to any candidate.
10. They felt … to offer him hospitality.
Practice 10.
Replace the underlined words with the most suitable ones from your active vocabulary.
1. Let’s just say that we know the problem and that we are trying to do smth about it.
2. I was able to do something for him by recommending him for the job.
3. Tim carried on reading, not knowing about my presence.
4. He is likely to gain weight.
5. We are limited to 22 days holiday a year, so I don’t think a three-weeks safari in the summer will be possible.
6. Because of the heavy rains many parts of the countryside can be reached only by boat.
7. Senator Gray’s speech was an extremely ho nest criticism of the government.
8. Doctors are required to keep their patients’ records secret.
9. This scheme has many additional advantages.
10. There has been considerable debate on whether or not jogging is actually healthy.
Practice 11.
Translate the following sentences into English.
1. Я не знал, что она уже поговорила с вами.
2. Правительство установило жесткие ограничения на расходы в этом году.
3. Мужчины и женщины должны иметь равный доступ к образованию и трудоустройству.
4. Наша новая стратегия исследования гарантирует, что мы получим наилучшие результаты.
5. Этот подход получил больше поддержки в Великобритании, чем в США.
6. Если у вас есть проблемы, вы должны поставить о них в известность руководство.
7. Гостиница выглядела хорошо, но внешность может быть обманчивой.
8. Он подчеркнул, что необходимо соблюсти некоторые формальности.
9. Работодатели обязаны по закону платить минимальную заработную плату.
UNIT 4
Bargaining Behaviors
Closely related to the above discussion of negotiation tactics are the different types of bargaining behaviors, including both verbal and nonverbal behaviors. Verbal behaviors are an important part of the negotiating process because they can improve the final outcome. Research shows that the profits of the negotiators increase when they: (1) make high initial offers, (2) ask a lot of questions, and (3) do not make many verbal commitments until the end of the negotiating process. In short, verbal behaviors are critical to the success of negotiations.
The Use of Extreme Behaviors Some negotiators begin by making extreme offers or requests. The Chinese and Arabs are examples. However, some negotiators begin with an initial position that is close to the one they are seeking. The Americans and the Swedes are examples.
Is one approach any more effective than the other? Research shows that extreme positions tend to produce better results. Sоmе of the reasons relate to the fact that an extreme bargaining position: (1) shows the other part that the bargainer will not bе exploited; (2)extends the negotiation and gives the bargainer а better opportunity to gain information on the opponent': (3) allows more room for concessions; (4) modifies the opponents' beliefs about the bargainer's preferences; (5) shows the opponent that the bargainer is willing to play the game according to the usual norms; and (6) lets the bargainer gain mоrе than would probably be possible if а less extreme initial position had been taken.
Although the use of extreme position bargaining is considered "un-Arnerican," manу U.S. firms have used it successfully against foreign competitors. When Peter Ueberroth managed the Olympic games in the United States in 1984, he turned а profit of well over $100 million and that was without the participation оf Soviet Bloc countries, which would have further increased the market potential of the games. In past Olympiads, the sponsoring countries had lost hundreds of millions of dollars. How did Ueberroth do it? One way was by using extreme position bargaining. For example, the Olympic Committee felt that the Japanese should pay $10 million for the right to televise the games in that country. So when the Japanese offered $6 million for the rights, the Olympic committee countered with $90 million. Eventually the two sides agreed on $18.5 million. Through the effective use of extreme position bargaining, Ueberroth got the Japanese to pay over three times their original offer, an amount wеll in excess of the committee's target.
Promises, Threats, and Other Behaviors Another approach to bargaining is the use of promises, threats, rewards, self-disclosures, and other behaviors designed to influence the other party. These behaviors are often greatly influenced by the culture. Graham conducted research using Japanese, American, and Brazilian business people and found that they employed a variety of different behaviors during а buyer-seller negotiation simulation. Table 4-4 presents the results. The table shows that the Americans and Japanese make greater use of promises than do the Brazilians. The Japanese also rely heavily on recommendations and commitment. The Brazilians use а discussion of rewards, commands, and self-disclosure mоrе than the Americans and Japanese. The Brazilians also say по а great deal more and make first offers that have: higher-level profits than those of the others. The Americans tend to operate between these two groups, although they do make less use of commands than either of their opponents and make first offers that have lower profit levels than their opponents.
| CROSS-CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN NONVERBAL NEQOTIATING BEHAVIOR: JАРАNЕЗЕ, AMERICANS, AND BRAZILIANS | |||
| Behavior and definition | Number of times tactic was used in а half-hour bargaining session by: | ||
| Promise. А statement in which the source indicated an intention to provide the target with а reinforcing consequence which source anticipates target will evaluate as pleasant, positive, or rewarding. | Japanese | American | Brazilian |
| Threat. Same as promise, except that the reinforcing consequences are thought to be noxious, unpleasant, or punishing. | |||
| Recommendation. А statement in which the source predicts that а pleasant environmental consequence will occur to the target. Its occurrence is not under the source's control. | |||
| Warning. Same as recommendation except that the consequences are thought to be unpleasant. | |||
| Reward. А statement by the source that is thought to create pleasant consequences for the target. | |||
| Punishment. Same as reward, except that the consequences are thought to be unpleasant. | |||
| Positive normative appeal. А statement in which the Source indicates that the target’s past, present, or Future behavior was or will be in conformity with social norms. | |||
| Negative normative appeal. Same as positive normative appeal, except that the target’s behavior is in violation of social norms. | |||
| Commitment. А statement by the source to the effect that its future bids will not go below or above а certain level. | |||
| Self-disclosure. А statement in which the source reveals information about itself. | |||
| Question. А statement in which the source asks the target to reveal information about itself. | |||
| Command. А statement in which the source suggests that the target perform а certain behavior. | |||
| First offer. The profit level associated with each participant's first offer. | 61.5 | 57.3 | 75.2 |
| Initial concession. The difference in profit between the first and second offer. | 6.5 | 7.1 | 9.4 |
| Number of "no"s. Number of times the word "no" was used by bargainers per half hour | 5.7 | 9.0 | 83.4 |
Studying the words
1. to anticipate (v)– воспринимать, ожидать, предвидеть, предвкушать.
to anticipate success
to anticipate -делать что-то раньше времени
to anticipate payment – уплатить раньше срока
anticipation (n) – ожидание
in anticipation of – в ожидании чего либо
to anticipate the enemy move
2. an appeal (n) – привлекательность, притягательность, очарование
to have much appeal – обладать большой привлекательностью
an appeal (to smb) – призыв, обращение к аппеляции
to make an appeal to smb’s feeling – взывать к чьим-то чувствам
to make an appeal to force – прибегнуть к силе
normative appeal – призыв к нормативному принятому в обществе поведению
positive normative appeal – использование положительной оценки (одобрение) социального поведения
negative normative appeal – использование негативной оценки (акцентирование нарушения) социального поведения.
3. to conform to (v) – соответствовать
conformity (n) – соответствие, согласованность
to be in conformity with – быть в согласии, не противоречить
4. a bid – (n) претензия, заявка, торги. зд. предлагаемая цена, предложение о заключении контракта
Ex: Bid’s for the bonds totalled $ 2.26 billion
Bids are invited for …- объявляются торги
Last bid – последнее предложение
Highest bid – наилучшее предложение
To make a bid – делать предложение
To bid against smb – делать конкурентное предложение, сбивать цену.
5. command (n) – господство, власть, полномочия, контроль.
command of emotions – способность контролировать свои чувства.
to be in command – контролировать
Ex: He felt that he was really in command of the situation.
6. consequence (n) – последствия, результат
the consequence of an action
to take consequence of smth – нести ответственность (за последствия)
a person of consequence – влиятельное лицо
reinforcing consequence – вытекающие последствия
It’s of no consequence – Это неважно, не имеет значения.
7. to counter (v) – выступать с ответными предложениями; высказаться в ответ.
a counter offer – контрпредложение (обычно более высокое, чем предыдущее)
counter party – торговый партнер, противоположная сторона на переговорах
8. critical (adj) – решающий, важный
to be critical to smth/smb – быть существенно важным, значимым для чего-либо.
9. disclosure (n) – раскрытие, обнаружение
self – disclosure – предоставление сведений о себе, самораскрытие
10. to the effect that – (кн.) следующего содержания, в том что
11. in excess of – больше, сверх, превышая
production in excess of plan – сверхплановая продукция
12. to exploit (v) – зд. – манипулировать, использовать в своих интересах.
Ex: They exploited her generosity shamelessly.
Advertising shouldn’t exploit customer’s feeling
13. To extend smth – 1) расширять, удлинять.
Ex: The new club is being extended to make space foe a new dance area.
2) Продлять срок действия
Ex: The authorities have extended her visa for another 6 month.
To extend to – распространяться на
Ex: The ban on import does not extend to medical supplies.
14. an extreme offer – предельно высокое предложение.
an extreme request – предельно высокое требование.
high offers – выгодные, заманчивые, щедрые предложения.
high initial offers – дип. Высокое вступительное предложение. (первоначальное предложение с очень выгодными условиями)
15. to get smb to do smth – заставить кого-то сделать что-то.
syn: to make smb to do smth.
16. intention – намерение
have no intention of doing smth
with the intention of doing smth
Ex: he went to the USA with the intention of getting a job.
17. noxious – пагубный, вредный.
18. an outcome (n) – результат, исход, последствия.
The outcome of the election – результаты выборов.
19. To play the game (ia.) – играть (поступать) по правилам; вести себя честно, порядочно
20. Position on smth – зд. Позиция, требование, мнение относительно чего-либо.
Ex: What’s the party’s position on foreign aids?
Extreme initial position – дип. Намеренно завышенные стартовые позиции.
21. punishing – причиняющий вред, приносимые убыток, потери
The punishing blow of the opponent.
22. reinforcing – укрепляющий, усиливающий, подкрепляющий.
to reinforce – усиливать, подкреплять.
He reinforce his promise by the word of order. – Он не просто обещал, он дал честное слово.
23. to relate to (v) – иметь отношение, относиться к, быть связанным с
Ex: It’s difficult to relate these phenomena to each other.
24. to reveal – открывать, разоблачать
to reveal a secret
to reveal one’s identity
25. A reward (n) – вознаграждение
a reward – зд. Позитивная отдача, позитивный результат
Ex: Her success has brought her little commercial reward the economic reward that comes with tourism.
26. room (n) – 1) место, пространство
There is a plenty of room here – здесь много места.
To make, to give room for... – посторониться, дать место
2) возможность
To allow room for – зд. Предоставить возможность для
Ex: There is no room for improvement – лучше некуда
There is room for improvement – кое-что надо исправить
There is no room for doubt – нет оснований для сомнений
There is no room for complaint – юр. Нет никаких оснований для подачи жалобы.
27. simulation (n) – симуляция, учебная модель реальной обстановки.
A computer simulation of a space flight
28. A source (n) – зд. источник, высказывающаяся сторона.
29. A statement (n) – высказывание, утверждение, заявление
to make a statement – сделать заявление
an opening statement – дип. вступительное заявление.
30. A target (n) – цель, объект; зд. выслушивающая сторона.
31. to turn a profit – зд. Достичь прибыли
32. Verbal (adj)– 1) словесный, относящийся к языку, выраженный словами (через речь)
2) устный в отличие от письменного.
verbal agreement – устное соглашение.
verbal warning – устное предупреждение.
verbal explanation – устное объявление.
non – verbal communication, i.e. gestures, expression of the face, etc. – неязыковые средства общения (жесты, мимика и т.д.)
33. to violate (v) – нарушать, преступать
to violate the law – нарушать закон
to violate one’s conscience – действовать вопреки совести
violation (n) – нарушение (особо грубое или одностороннее)
the violation of a treaty
34. well over – значительно больший, превосходящий, превышающий.
syn: far, much more.
35. to be willing to do smth – 1) иметь намерение сделать что-то
2) Быть готовым сделать что-то
If you are willing to do smth, you will agree to do it, if someone asks you to do it.
Comprehension check
Practice 1
Answer the following questions:
1. Why are verbal behaviors considered to be an important part of negotiations?
2. How can negotiators increase their profits through verbal behaviors?
3. In what way are initial offers used as negotiation tactics?
4. Negotiators of what nationalities tend to make extreme offers and requests?
5. Why does extreme bargaining position tend to produce better results sometimes?
6. What are the different behaviors designed to influence the other party while negotiating (besides extreme ones)?
7. What are the bargaining behaviors greatly influenced by? Can you give any examples?
8. What are the most typical Japanese behaviors?
9. Which are the most common verbal behaviors?
Practice 2
Complete the following sentences using the required information from the above text:
1. Research shows that the profit of negotiators increase when they: …
2. Extreme bargaining positions tend to produce better results because: …
3. Another approach to bargaining is the use of … designed to influence the other party.
4. The Brazilians make a greater use of … in their bargaining behavior.
5. The typical examples of nonverbal behavior include: …
6. The Japanese rely heavily on …, while the Brazilians use …
7. The Americans tend to operate between … in their bargaining behavior as they ….
Language work
Practice 3
Find in the text English equivalents for the following word combinations:
Не давать большого количества устных обещаний до конца переговоров, быть существенно важным для успеха переговоров, продлить срок переговоров, намеренно завышенные стартовые позиции, предоставить возможность для уступки, иметь намерение поступать по правилам (вести честную игру), достичь прибыли значительно превышающей…, выступить с ответным предложением, использование поведенческих тактик для воздействия на партнеров; оценить как положительное, благоприятное; вытекающие последствия будут являться неблагоприятными, их возникновение не контролируется источником, создать благоприятные последствия для респондента, не соответствовать социальным нормам, предлагаемая цена не поднимется выше определенного уровня, первоначальные уступки, высказывание источника следующего содержания, доверять рекомендациям и
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