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Exercise 9. Complete the following sentences by putting the verbs into either the Present Perfect or Past Simple.
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1. We (reach) our targets last year.
2. Sales (fall) since the beginning of June.
3. Contracts (be signed) but work (not begin) yet.
4. The marketing department (recruit) two new assistants so far this year.
5. We (start) the advertising campaign last month and since then sales (rocket).
6. Turnover (rise) dramatically since we (be founded).
7. We (expect) a fall in profits last year as our costs nearly (double).
8. We (sell) already more units this year than we (do) in the whole last year.
Exercise 10. Choose from the modal verbs below in order to complete the dialogue.
should have to could can must may
A: Surely your brands... be worth more than that?
B: Well, it's very difficult to say. They... well be. However, we prefer to put it on the conservation side.
A: I... say I find these figures hard to believe. After all, a company that wanted to create a brand would... pay a fortune in advertising alone.
B: Yes, that's true, but you... not put a figure on brand creation - it depends on so many factors.
A: I agree, but we... calculate from a historical basis.
B: That's not the point. The real value is the long-term potential profit. How... you estimate them?
A: Well, you... have annual sales forecasts?
B: Of course, but if we are going to value them in the balance sheet, we... have a longer-term perspective.
A: In my opinion what you... do it... take ten years' potential net income.
Exercise 11. Complete the following sentences, using an appropriate verb of speaking and preposition, where necessary (speak, tell, talk, say).
1. He... us that some managers rate each subordinate by different standards.
2. He... to us... shifting standards.
3. He... that to be effective, the appraisal method must be seen to be fair.
4. He... to us... how personal biases distort rating.
5. He... that an increasing number of organizations deal with the problem of bias by asking for explanations of ratings.
6. Then we... about rating styles.
7. He... about the different patterns of raters: some rate harshly, others rate easily.
8. He... us that the lack of uniform rating standards is unfair to employees.
9. We... to him that we thought it was also unfair to organizations.
Exercise 12. Answer the questions.
The three basic methods of becoming a small firm owner are:
To buy a franchise.
To buy an established business.
To create a new business firm.
What method would you choose and why?
Exercise 13. Look through the list of advantages and disadvantages for both parties and give your analyses of this problem.
PART IV
TEXT 1. HISTORY OF ECONOMICS
What is a system? Everybody is familiar with this word and uses it in everyday language. We speak of heating systems, communication systems, economic systems, and transportation systems. We talk of cultural and social systems. The word system is used because it conveys the idea that these things are made up of parts and that the parts somehow interact with each other for some purpose or reason. A system is an organized or complex whole - an assemblage or combination of things or parts performing as a complex or unitary whole.
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This definition implies several ideas. First is the concept of interdependency. If a change occurs in one part or set of parts, it affects all other parts of the system. This affect on each part may be direct or indirect.
A second implication of the definition of a system is the concept of wholism. This means that the system should be considered as a functioning whole. Changes in parts of the system and in the functioning of elements of the system should be considered from the standpoint of the system's overall performance.
A third concept implied by the definition is synergism. This refers to the interactive effect of the parts of the system working together. The actual interaction of the parts creates an effect which is greater than the effect of the parts acting separately.
We've started our text on economics with this small extract about a system because we want you to bear in mind and apply the systematic approach to everything you see, hear, read or discuss, for everything in this world belongs to this or that system. While reading the texts pay attention to the economic and business terms. They'll become the basis of your professional vocabulary.
In the 1500s there were few universities. Those that existed taught religion, Latin, Greek, philosophy, history, and mathematics. No economics. Then came the Enlightenment (about 1700) in which reasoning replaced God as the explanation of why things were the way they were. Pre-Enlightenment thinkers would answer the question, "Why am I poor?" with, "Because God wills it." Enlightenment scholars looked for a different explanation. "Because of the nature of land ownership" is one answer they found.
Such reasoned explanations required more knowledge of the way things were, and the amount of information expanded so rapidly that it had to be divided or categorized for an individual to have hope of knowing a subject. Soon philosophy was subdivided into science and philosophy. In the 1700s, the sciences were split into natural sciences and social sciences. The amount of knowledge kept increasing, and in the late 1800s and early 1900s social science itself split into subdivisions: economics, political science, history, geography, sociology, anthropology, and psychology. Many of the insights about how the economic system worked were codified in Adam Smith's The Wealth of Nations, written in 1776. Notice that this is before economics as a subdiscipline developed, and Adam Smith could also be classified as an anthropologist, a sociologist, a political scientist, and a social philosopher.
Throughout the 18th and 19th centuries economists such as Adam Smith, Thomas Malthus, John Stuart Mill, David Ricardo, and Karl Marx were more than economists; they were social philosophers who covered all aspects of social science. These writers were subsequently called Classical economists. Alfred Marshall continued in that classical tradition, and his book, Principles of Economics, published in the late 1800s, was written with the other social sciences in evidence. But Marshall also changed the question economists ask; he focused on the questions that could be asked in a graphical supply-demand framework. In doing so he began what is called neo-classical economics.
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For a while economics got lost in itself, and economists learned little else. Marshall's analysis was downplayed, and the work of more formal economists of the 1800s (such as Leon Walras, Francis Edgeworth, and Antoine Cournot) was seen as the basis of the science of economics. Economic analysis that focuses only on formal interrelationships is called Walrasian economics.
EXERCISES
Exercise 1. The text you've read gives a very brief view of the history of Economics. What other names (schools, theories) can you give to continue the story?
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