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Nature or domain of execution
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КОЛЛЕДЖ ИНСТИТУТА СПОРТА, ТУРИЗМА И СЕРВИСА ФГАОУ ВО «ЮУрГУ (НИУ)»
| СОГЛАСОВАНО: _____________ подпись Зам.директора по НМР Н.В. Ермилова «____»_________________20___г | УТВЕРЖДАЮ: ______________ подпись Зам.директора по УВР Ж.Г. Аристова «____»_________________20___г |
Комплект контрольно-оценочных средств
Для дифференцированного зачёта
по учебной дисциплине
общеобразовательного цикла
ОУДБ. 02.01 ИНОСТРАННЫЙ ЯЗЫК
Основной профессиональной образовательной программы
ПРОГРАММИРОВАНИЕ В КОМПЬЮТЕРНЫХ СИСТЕМАХ
Челябинск 2016-2017
Комплект контрольно-оценочных средств для дифференцированного зачёта по учебной дисциплине ОУДБ.02.01 «Иностранный язык» разработан в соответствии с Положением о текущем контроле успеваемости и промежуточной аттестации обучающихся колледжа ИСТС ФГАОУ ВО «ЮУрГУ (НИУ)», рассмотрен и одобрен на заседании предметной (цикловой) комиссии № ___, протокол № ___ от «___»____________20 г.
Разработчики:
| Колледж института спорта, туризма и сервиса ФГАОУ ВО «ЮУрГУ (НИУ)» | преподаватель | Г.П.Уварова |
СОДЕРЖАНИЕ
1 ПАСПОРТ КОМПЛЕКТА КОНТРОЛЬНО-ОЦЕНОЧНЫХ СРЕДСТВ.. 4
1.1 Область применения. 4
1.2 Результаты освоения учебной дисциплины, подлежащие контролю.. 4
2 ПРОЦЕДУРА И СРЕДСТВА ОЦЕНИВАНИЯ ПЕРСОНАЛЬНЫХ ОБРАЗОВАТЕЛЬНЫХ ДОСТИЖЕНИЙ ОБУЧАЮЩИХСЯ.. 6
2.1 Условия допуска к дифференцированному зачету. 6
2.2 Организация дифференцированного зачета. 7
3 КОНТРОЛЬНО-ОЦЕНОЧНЫЕ МАТЕРИАЛЫ ДЛЯ ДИФФЕРЕНЦИРОВАННОГО ЗАЧЕТА 8
3.1 Перечень контрольно-оценочных материалов. 8
3.2 Комплект контрольно-оценочных материалов. 8
4 ПАКЕТ ЭКЗАМЕНАТОРА.. 29
5 РЕКОМЕНДУЕМАЯ ЛИТЕРАТУРА И ИНЫЕ ИСТОЧНИКИ.. 32
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1 ПАСПОРТ КОМПЛЕКТА КОНТРОЛЬНО-ОЦЕНОЧНЫХ СРЕДСТВ
1.1 Область применения
Комплект контрольно-оценочных средств предназначен для промежуточной аттестации метапредметных и предметных результатов обучающихся, достигнутых в процессе освоения учебной дисциплины ОУДБ.02.01 «Иностранный язык» основной профессиональной образовательной программы (далее ОПОП) СПО 09.02.03 «Программирование в компьютерных системах».
1.2 Результаты освоения учебной дисциплины, подлежащие контролю
Комплект контрольно-оценочных средств для дифференцированного зачета позволяет оценить качество освоения обучающимися содержания дисциплины и уровень сформированности образовательных результатов у обучающихся по завершении изучения учебной дисциплины «Иностранный язык» (табл. 1.).
Таблица 1 – Проектируемые образовательные результаты (личностные, метапредметные, предметные)
| Личностные, метапредметные, предметные результаты |
| Л1 Сформированность ценностного отношения к языку как культурному феномену и средству отображения развития общества, его истории и духовной культуры |
| Л2 Сформированность широкого представления о достижениях национальных культур, о роли английского языка и культуры в развитии мировой культуры |
| Л 3 развитие интереса и способности к наблюдению за иным способом мировидения |
| Л 4 Осознание своего места в поликультурном мире; готовность и способность вести диалог на английском языке с представителями других культур, достигать взаимопонимания, находить общие цели и сотрудничать в различных областях для их достижения; умение проявлять толерантность к другому образу мыслей, к иной позиции партнера по общению |
| Л 5 Готовность и способность к непрерывному образованию, включая самообразование, как в профессиональной области с использованием английского языка, так и в сфере английского языка |
| М 1 Умение самостоятельно выбирать успешные коммуникативные стратегии в различных ситуациях общения |
| М 2 Владение навыками проектной деятельности, моделирующей реальные ситуации межкультурной коммуникации |
| М 3 Умение организовать коммуникативную деятельность, продуктивно общаться и взаимодействовать с ее участниками, учитывать их позиции, эффективно разрешать конфликты |
| М 4 Умение ясно, логично и точно излагать свою точку зрения, используя адекватные языковые средства |
| П 1 Сформированность коммуникативной иноязычной компетенции, необходимой для успешной социализации и самореализации, как инструмента межкультурного общения в современном поликультурном мире |
| П2 Владение знаниями о социокультурной специфике англоговорящих стран и умение строить свое речевое и неречевое поведение адекватно этой специфике; умение выделять общее и различное в культуре родной страны и англоговорящих стран |
| П 3 Достижение порогового уровня владения английским языком, позволяющего выпускникам общаться в устной и письменной формах как с носителями английского языка, так и с представителями других стран, использующими данный язык как средство общения |
| П 4 Сформированность умения использовать английский язык как средство для получения информации из англоязычных источников в образовательных и самообразовательных целях |
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2 ПРОЦЕДУРА И СРЕДСТВА ОЦЕНИВАНИЯ ПЕРСОНАЛЬНЫХ ОБРАЗОВАТЕЛЬНЫХ ДОСТИЖЕНИЙ ОБУЧАЮЩИХСЯ
2.1 Условия допуска к дифференцированному зачету
Дифференцированный зачет проводится по окончании изучения дисциплины за счет объема времени, отводимого на изучение дисциплины.
Условием допуска к дифференцированному зачету является положительная аттестация по результатам текущего и рубежного контроля, выполнение всех заданий для внеаудиторной самостоятельной работы обучающихся.
В процессе допуска обучающихся к промежуточной аттестации по дисциплине преподавателем, применяющим балльно-рейтинговую систему оценивания, учитывается итоговый рейтинг обучающегося по дисциплине и принимается решение об освобождении обучающегося от процедуры промежуточной аттестации:
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- обучающийся, имеющий итоговый рейтинг от 4,8 до 5 баллов, освобождается от выполнения заданий на дифференцированном зачете и получает оценку «отлично».
- при условии итоговой рейтинговой средневзвешенной оценки обучающегося, соответствующей рейтингу от 4,5 до 4,7 баллов, обучающийся может быть освобожден (на усмотрение преподавателя) от выполнения заданий на дифференцированном зачете с оценкой «хорошо», если обучающийся претендует на получение оценки «отлично», он должен присутствовать на дифференцированном зачете и выполнить все задания, предусмотренные для промежуточной аттестации по учебной дисциплине.
Перечень заданий, выполнение которых предусматривается в процессе дифференцированного зачета, для каждого обучающегося может определяться преподавателем индивидуально – в зависимости от его персональных образовательных достижений – на основе результатов текущего и рубежного контроля по учебной дисциплине.
Обучающиеся, допущенные к дифференцированному зачету «условно», сначала предъявляют преподавателю работы, выполнение которых необходимо для положительной аттестации, но в процессе обучения по дисциплине не представлены, а также выполняют задания, оценки за которые по результатам текущего и рубежного контроля были неудовлетворительными. Для таких обучающихся преподаватель вправе предусмотреть дополнительные задания: ответы на теоретические вопросы, тестирование, выполнение практических заданий, защиту рефератов и др.
2.2 Организация дифференцированного зачета
Дифференцированный зачет по УД 02.01 «Иностранный язык» проводится в форме комплексного оценивания образовательных результатов (усвоенных знаний, освоенных умений и компетенций). Каждому заданию присваивается код (аббревиатура по первым буквам слов в наименовании типа задания):
- выполнения тестовых заданий (далее – ТЗ);
- выполнения практического задания (далее – ПЗ).
3 КОНТРОЛЬНО-ОЦЕНОЧНЫЕ МАТЕРИАЛЫ ДЛЯ ДИФФЕРЕНЦИРОВАННОГО ЗАЧЕТА
3.1 Перечень контрольно-оценочных материалов
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Перечень контрольно-оценочных материалов для дифференцированного зачета представлен в таблице 2.
Таблица 2 – Виды комплексных заданий для дифференцированного зачета
| Индекс задания | Тип задания | Кол-во вариантов | Время (мин) | Проверяемые результаты обучения (М, П,) |
| ТЗ | выполнение тестовых заданий | М 1 – М 4 П1 – П 4 | ||
| ПЗ | выполнение практических заданий | М 1-4 П1-4 |
3.2 Комплект контрольно-оценочных материалов
Тестовые задания
Комплект тестовых заданийвключает тесты различных уровней сложности: выбор одного варианта ответа из предложенного множества.
Тестовые задания закрытого типа с выбором одного правильного ответа из нескольких предложенных вариантов
Тестовые задания:
В-I
1.Where …you from?
a) am b) is c) are
2. I … a girl.
a) am b) is c) are
3. Here we …!
a) am b) is c) are
4. There … a good film on TV tonight.
a) am b) was c) are
5. There … many books on the table.
a) am b) is c) were
6. There … much snow this winter.
a) am b) will be c) are
7. My family … of 3 persons.
a) consists b) contains c) is
8. I … in a five - storeyed block of flats.
a) am b) live c) was
9. We have all modern ….
a) rooms b) comforts c) conveniences
10. Let me … myself.
a) introduce b) imagine c) enter
11. My name … Igor.
a) am b) is c) are
12. My … is Petrov.
a) name b) surname c) family
13. I … got a sister.
a) have b) has c) am
14. Her eyes were … large … small.
a) either…or b)neither…nor c) not…or
15. Mary … Peter went to Moscow.
a) but b) and c) or
16. … you are ready, let’s go!
a) if b) when c) but
17. This film is … interesting … that one.
a) as…if b) as…as c) so…as
18. I like this film … it’s funny.
a) in order that b) because c) though
19. … stay here … go with us!
a) either…or b)neither…nor c) not…or
20. Peter … Olga are married.
a) but b) and c) or
В-II
21. … the weather is fine, I’ll go to the country.
a) if b) when c) but
22. This girl is …beautiful … that one.
a) as…if b) as…as c) so…as
23. I’ll do it … it’s very difficult for me.
a) in order that b) because c) though
24. Our teacher... speak three languages.
a) can b) must c) may
25. Your coat is quite new. You... buy another one.
a) mustn’t b) needn’t c)can’t
26....I come in?
a) must b) may c) might
27. Students... interrupt their teachers.
a) needn’t b) mustn’t c)can’t
28. We...be more attentive!
a) should b) might c)had to
29.We have never met before,.... we?
a) have not b) have c) are d) do not
30. They have two....
a) children b) child c) childs d) childrens
31. There are a lot of alligators in... Nile.
a) a b) an c) - d) the
32....too much sugar in the tea. I can't drink it.
a) there is b) there are c) there were d) there was
33. I want those books. Please, give... to me.
a) they b) them c) those d) these
34. Do you know... here?
a) some b) any c) somebody d) anybody
35. Why... you absent yesterday?
a) did b) were c) was d) are
36. Our baby... walk in a few weeks.
a) can b) will be able to c) have to d) may
37. This way is... than the other.
a) safe b) safer c) more safe d) safest
38. How much money do you spend...food each month?
a) at b) on c) for d) to
39. He will translate the text if he... a dictionary.
a) has b) will have c) have d) has had
40. The TV broke down when we... the news.
a) watched b) was watching c) were watching d) are watching
В-III
41. They...each other since 1992.
a) know b) knew c) had known d) have known
42. I... for you for half an hour.
a) am waiting b) have been waiting c) wait d) waited
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43. Ann told her friend that she... the competition.
a) won b) had won c) win d) has won
44. Excuse me, I...for a telephone box. Is there one near here?
a) look b) looks c) looking d) am looking
45. In 1996 when I lived in Moscow I... at a bank.
a) was working b) work c) working d) have worked
46. She can't take part in this competition. She... her leg.
a) breaks b) broke c) has broken d) broken
47. Tom hurt his hand when he...dinner.
a) cooked b) was cooking c) cooked d) has cooked
48. That bag looks heavy. I...you with it.
a) will help b) help c) helping d) helped
49. We...football with "Spartak" on Saturday last week.
a) plat b) have played c) were playing d) played
50. I usually...home from Lyceum at 5 o'clock.
a) coming b) am coming c) have come d) come
51. If he... busy I'll invite him to the party.
a) is not b) is c) will not be d) were not
52. We found that she... home at 8 o'clock every morning.
a) leaves b) left c) had left d) has left
53. We...dinner until Jack....
a) will not start... arrives b) do not start... will arrive c) will not start... will arrive
54. Tom asked Jane where... on holiday.
a) will she go b) she goes c) would she go d) she would go
55. Many children in Britain... wear uniform when they go to school.
a) can b) are able c) must d) had to
56. I... late for the first lecture yesterday.
a) am b) will be c) was d) were
57.... some information about this film.
a) there's b) there're c) they're d) it's
58. If...ring the doorbell don't let them in.
a) everybody b) anybody c) nobody d) everything
59. She is a very quiet person. She doesn't speak....
a) many b) little c) much d) few
60. I have got... money and we can go shopping.
a) many b) few c) much d) little
В-IV
61. Nick has a...handwriting than you.
a) well b) better c) much d) good
62. After many years away he arrived back... England a month ago.
a) in b) at c) on d) -
63. This morning I had... boiled eggs for...breakfast.
a) the... the b) -... - c) a... the d) -... the
64. Of two evils choose the....
a)less b)little c) least
65.The conference began... October 18.
a)at b)in c) on
66. I was busy and couldn't listen...the radio.
a)to b)on c) for
67.Каte is …than Helen.
a)more clever b) the cleverest c) cleverer
68. This garden was … in the village.
a) beautiful b) more beautiful c) the most beautiful
69. Your answer is …than your friend’ s is.
a) good b) better c) the best
70. My father is … in our family.
а) the tallest b) tall c) taller
71. The daughter is … than her mother.
a) more beautiful b) the most beautiful c) beautiful
72. A mouse is … than an elephant.
a) big b) bigger c) the biggest
73.Moscow … the capital of Russia?
a) were b) is c) are
74.I … (not) interested in football at all.
a) is b) are c) am
75.I … stay at home on Sundays.
a) am not b) doesn’t c) don’t
76.My mother … a bad headache.
a) have got b) am c) has got
77. … you like swimming?
a) do b) does c) are
78. … your sister often go to the theatre?
a) is b) does c) do
79. Mary … apples but she likes oranges?
a) not likes b) doesn’t like c) do not like
80. Granny is in the kitchen. She …a plum – cake.
a) is making b) makes c) made
В-V
81. Usually I … coffee in the morning.
a) am having b) had c) have
82. My elder sister … school in June.
a) will finish b) finishes c) is finishing
83. Your parents …if you … late in the evening.
a) will worry, will be b) are worry, will be с) will worry, are
84. Now my brother smokes a lot but he … before.
a) doesn’t b) didn’t с) don’t
85. The weather is nice today but it … bad yesterday.
a) is b) will be с) was
86. I sleep well but last night I … at all.
a) don’t sleep b) didn’t sleep с) doesn’t sleep
87. When … you write to your parents last time?
a) did b) do с) will
88. Mike hoped that his friend … him with car.
a) will help b) would help с) helped
89. Are you married? – Yes, I …
a) do b) am с) was
90. He can play golf well, …?
a) doesn’t he? b) can he? с) can’t he?
91. You like black coffee, …?
a) aren’t you b) don’t you с) do you
92. There will be a nice film on TV tonight, …?
a) won’t there b) will it с) will there
93. Pushkin is … outstanding Russian poet.
a) the b) a с) an
94. The rent is 50 dollars … week.
a) in b) the с) a
95. Could you tell me … time, please?
a) the b) some с) a
96. I met my … friend yesterday.
a) good b) better с) best
97. Where is the … post-office, please?
a) the nearest b) the next с) nearer
98. Neither of my parents … German.
a) says b) talks с) speaks
99. What’s wrong … Henry? He looks tired.
a) about b) with с) of
100. I am proud … your achievements.
a) at b) about с) of
Практические задания
ПЗ1 Текст прочитать, понять, пересказать. Ответить на вопросы.
Computer
A computer is a device that can be instructed to carry out an arbitrary set of arithmetic or logical operations automatically. The ability of computers to follow a sequence of operations, called a program, make computers very flexible and useful. Such computers are used as control systems for a very wide variety of industrial and consumer devices. This includes simple special purpose devices like microwave ovens and remote controls, factory devices such as industrial robots and computer assisted design, but also in general purpose devices like personal computers and mobile devices such as smartphones. The Internet is run on computers and it connects millions of other computers.
Since ancient times, simple manual devices like the abacus aided people in doing calculations. Early in the Industrial Revolution, some mechanical devices were built to automate long tedious tasks, such as guiding patterns for looms. More sophisticated electrical machines did specialized analog calculations in the early 20th century. The first digital electronic calculating machines were developed during World War II. The speed, power, and versatility of computers has increased continuously and dramatically since then.
Conventionally, a modern computer consists of at least one processing element, typically a central processing unit (CPU), and some form of memory. The processing element carries out arithmetic and logical operations, and a sequencing and control unit can change the order of operations in response to stored information. Peripheral devices include input devices (keyboards, mice, joystick, etc.), output devices (monitor screens, printers, etc.), and input/output devices that perform both functions (e.g., the 2000s-era touchscreen). Peripheral devices allow information to be retrieved from an external source and they enable the result of operations to be saved and retrieved.
Вопросы:
1. What is the main idea of this text?
2. Was this information difficult, interesting, important and useful for your future profession?
3. Why did you decide to choose such profession?
ПЗ2 Текст прочитать, понять, пересказать. Ответить на вопросы.
Software
Computer software, or simply software, is that part of a computer system that consists of encoded information or computer instructions, in contrast to the physical hardware from which the system is built.
The term "software" was first proposed by Alan Turing and used in this sense by John W. Tukey in 1957. In computer science and software engineering, computer software is all information processed by computer systems, programs and data.
Computer software includes computer programs, libraries and related non-executable data, such as online documentation or digital media. Computer hardware and software require each other and neither can be realistically used on its own.
At the lowest level, executable code consists of machine language instructions specific to an individual processor—typically a central processing unit (CPU). A machine language consists of groups of binary values signifying processor instructions that change the state of the computer from its preceding state. For example, an instruction may change the value stored in a particular storage location in the computer—an effect that is not directly observable to the user. An instruction may also (indirectly) cause something to appear on a display of the computer system—a state change which should be visible to the user. The processor carries out the instructions in the order they are provided, unless it is instructed to "jump" to a different instruction, or is interrupted.
The majority of software is written in high-level programming languages that are easier and more efficient for programmers, meaning closer to a natural language. High-level languages are translated into machine language using a compiler or an interpreter or a combination of the two. Software may also be written in a low-level assembly language, essentially, a vaguely mnemonic representation of a machine language using a natural language alphabet, which is translated into machine language using an assembler.
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Types of software
Based on the goal, computer software can be divided into:
· Application software, which is software that uses the computer system to perform special functions or provide entertainment functions beyond the basic operation of the computer itself. There are many different types of application software, because the range of tasks that can be performed with a modern computer is so large.
· System software, which is software that directly operates the computer hardware, to provide basic functionality needed by users and other software, and to provide a platform for running application software. System software includes:
· Operating systems, which are essential collections of software that manage resources and provides common services for other software that runs "on top" of them. Supervisory programs, boot loaders, shells and window systems are core parts of operating systems. In practice, an operating system comes bundled with additional software (including application software) so that a user can potentially do some work with a computer that only has an operating system.
· Device drivers, which operate or control a particular type of device that is attached to a computer. Each device needs at least one corresponding device driver; because a computer typically has at minimum at least one input device and at least one output device, a computer typically needs more than one device driver.
· Utilities, which are computer programs designed to assist users in the maintenance and care of their computers.
· Malicious software or malware, which is software that is developed to harm and disrupt computers. As such, malware is undesirable. Malware is closely associated with computer-related crimes, though some malicious programs may have been designed as practical jokes.
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Nature or domain of execution
· Desktop applications such as web browsers and Microsoft Office, as well as smartphone and tablet applications (called "apps"). (There is a push in some parts of the software industry to merge desktop applications with mobile apps, to some extent. Windows 8, and later Ubuntu Touch, tried to allow the same style of application user interface to be used on desktops, laptops and mobiles.)
· JavaScript scripts are pieces of software traditionally embedded in web pages that are run directly inside the web browser when a web page is loaded without the need for a web browser plugin. Software written in other programming languages can also be run within the web browser if the software is either translated into JavaScript, or if a web browser plugin that supports that language is installed; the most common example of the latter is ActionScript scripts, which are supported by the Adobe Flash plugin.
· Server software, including:
· Web applications, which usually run on the web server and output dynamically generated web pages to web browsers, using e.g. PHP, Java, ASP.NET, or even JavaScript that runs on the server. In modern times these commonly include some JavaScript to be run in the web browser as well, in which case they typically run partly on the server, partly in the web browser.
· Plugins and extensions are software that extends or modifies the functionality of another piece of software, and require that software be used in order to function;
· Embedded software resides as firmware within embedded systems, devices dedicated to a single use or a few uses such as cars and televisions (although some embedded devices such as wireless chipsets can themselves be part of an ordinary, non-embedded computer system such as a PC or smartphone). In the embedded system context there is sometimes no clear distinction between the system software and the application software. However, some embedded systems run embedded operating systems, and these systems do retain the distinction between system software and application software (although typically there will only be one, fixed, application which is always run).
· Microcode is a special, relatively obscure type of embedded software which tells the processor itself how to execute machine code, so it is actually a lower level than machine code. It is typically proprietary to the processor manufacturer, and any necessary correctional microcode software updates are supplied by them to users (which is much cheaper than shipping replacement processor hardware). Thus an ordinary programmer would not expect to ever have to deal with it.
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Programming tool
A programming tool or software development tool is a computer program that software developers use to create, debug, maintain, or otherwise support other programs and applications. The term usually refers to relatively simple programs, that can be combined together to accomplish a task, much as one might use multiple hand tools to fix a physical object. The ability to use a variety of tools productively is one hallmark of a skilled software engineer.
The most basic tools are a source code editor and a compiler or interpreter, which are used ubiquitously and continuously. Other tools are used more or less depending on the language, development methodology, and individual engineer, and are often used for a discrete task, like a debugger or profiler. Tools may be discrete programs, executed separately – often from the command line – or may be parts of a single large program, called an integrated development environment (IDE). In many cases, particularly for simpler use, simple ad hoc techniques are used instead of a tool, such as print debugging instead of using a debugger, manual timing (of overall program or section of code) instead of a profiler, or tracking bugs in a text file or spreadsheet instead of a bug tracking system.
The distinction between tools and applications is murky. For example, developers use simple databases (such as a file containing a list of important values) all the time as tools. However a full-blown database is usually thought of as an application or software in its own right. For many years, computer-assisted software engineering (CASE) tools were sought after. Successful tools have proven elusive.In one sense, CASE tools emphasized design and architecture support, such as for UML. But the most successful of these tools are IDEs.
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Architecture
Users often see things differently from programmers. People who use modern general purpose computers (as opposed to embedded systems, analog computers and supercomputers) usually see three layers of software performing a variety of tasks: platform, application, and user software.
· Platform software: The Platform includes the firmware, device drivers, an operating system, and typically a graphical user interface which, in total, allow a user to interact with the computer and its peripherals (associated equipment). Platform software often comes bundled with the computer. On a PC one will usually have the ability to change the platform software.
· Application software: Application software or Applications are what most people think of when they think of software. Typical examples include office suites and video games. Application software is often purchased separately from computer hardware. Sometimes applications are bundled with the computer, but that does not change the fact that they run as independent applications. Applications are usually independent programs from the operating system, though they are often tailored for specific platforms. Most users think of compilers, databases, and other "system software" as applications.
· User-written software: End-user development tailors systems to meet users' specific needs. User software include spreadsheet templates and word processor templates. Even email filters are a kind of user software. Users create this software themselves and often overlook how important it is. Depending on how competently the user-written software has been integrated into default application packages, many users may not be aware of the distinction between the original packages, and what has been added by co-workers.
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Quality and reliability
Software quality is very important, especially for commercial and system software like Microsoft Office, Microsoft Windows and Linux. If software is faulty (buggy), it can delete a person's work, crash the computer and do other unexpected things. Faults and errors are called "bugs" which are often discovered during alpha and beta testing. Software is often also a victim to what is known as software aging, the progressive performance degradation resulting from a combination of unseen bugs.
Many bugs are discovered and eliminated (debugged) through software testing. However, software testing rarely—if ever—eliminates every bug; some programmers say that "every program has at least one more bug" (Lubarsky's Law). In the waterfall method of software development, separate testing teams are typically employed, but in newer approaches, collectively termed agile software development, developers often do all their own testing, and demonstrate the software to users/clients regularly to obtain feedback. Software can be tested through unit testing, regression testing and other methods, which are done manually, or most commonly, automatically, since the amount of code to be tested can be quite large. For instance, NASA has extremely rigorous software testing procedures for many operating systems and communication functions. Many NASA-based operations interact and identify each other through command programs. This enables many people who work at NASA to check and evaluate functional systems overall. Programs containing command software enable hardware engineering and system operations to function much easier together.
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Patents
Software patents, like other types of patents, are theoretically supposed to give an inventor an exclusive, time-limited license for a detailed idea (e.g. an algorithm) on how to implement a piece of software, or a component of a piece of software. Ideas for useful things that software could do, and user requirements, are not supposed to be patentable, and concrete implementations (i.e. the actual software packages implementing the patent) are not supposed to be patentable either—the latter are already covered by copyright, generally automatically. So software patents are supposed to cover the middle area, between requirements and concrete implementation. In some countries, a requirement for the claimed invention to have an effect on the physical world may also be part of the requirements for a software patent to be held valid—although since all useful software has effects on the physical world, this requirement may be open to debate.
Software patents are controversial in the software industry with many people holding different views about them. One of the sources of controversy is that the aforementioned split between initial ideas and patent does not seem to be honored in practice by patent lawyers—for example the patent for Aspect-Oriented Programming (AOP), which purported to claim rights over any programming tool implementing the idea of AOP, howsoever implemented. Another source of controversy is the effect on innovation, with many distinguished experts and companies arguing that software is such a fast-moving field that software patents merely create vast additional litigation costs and risks, and actually retard innovation. In the case of debates about software patents outside the US, the argument has been made that large American corporations and patent lawyers are likely to be the primary beneficiaries of allowing or continue to allow software patents.
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Design and implementation
Design and implementation of software varies depending on the complexity of the software. For instance, the design and creation of Microsoft Word took much more time than designing and developing Microsoft Notepad because the latter has much more basic functionality.
Software is usually designed and created (a.k.a. coded/written/programmed) in integrated development environments (IDE) like Eclipse, IntelliJ and Microsoft Visual Studio that can simplify the process and compile the software (if applicable). As noted in a different section, software is usually created on top of existing software and the application programming interface (API) that the underlying software provides like GTK+, JavaBeans or Swing. Libraries (APIs) can be categorized by their purpose. For instance, the Spring Framework is used for implementing enterprise applications, the Windows Forms library is used for designing graphical user interface (GUI) applications like Microsoft Word, and Windows Communication Foundation is used for designing web services. When a program is designed, it relies upon the API. For instance, if a user is designing a Microsoft Windows desktop application, he or she might use the.NET Windows Forms library to design the desktop application and call its APIs like Form1.Close() and Form1.Show() to close or open the application, and write the additional operations him/herself that it needs to have. Without these APIs, the programmer needs to write these APIs him/herself. Companies like Oracle and Microsoft provide their own APIs so that many applications are written using their software libraries that usually have numerous APIs in them.
Data structures such as hash tables, arrays, and binary trees, and algorithms such as quicksort, can be useful for creating software.
Computer software has special economic characteristics that make its design, creation, and distribution different from most other economic goods.
A person who creates software is called a programmer, software engineer or software developer, terms that all have a similar meaning. More informal terms for programmer also exist such as "coder" and " hacker " – although use of the latter word may cause confusion, because it is more often used to mean someone who illegally breaks into computer systems.
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First computing device
A portion of Babbage's Difference engine.
Charles Babbage, an English mechanical engineer and polymath, originated the concept of a programmable computer. Considered the "father of the computer" he conceptualized and invented the first mechanical computer in the early 19th century. After working on his revolutionary difference engine, designed to aid in navigational calculations, in 1833 he realized that a much more general design, an Analytical Engine, was possible. The input of programs and data was to be provided to the machine via punched cards, a method being used at the time to direct mechanical looms such as the Jacquard loom. For output, the machine would have a printer, a curve plotter and a bell. The machine would also be able to punch numbers onto cards to be read in later. The Engine incorporated an arithmetic logic unit, control flow in the form of conditional branching and loops, and integrated memory, making it the first design for a general-purpose computer that could be described in modern terms as Turing-complete.
The machine was about a century ahead of its time. All the parts for his machine had to be made by hand — this was a major problem for a device with thousands of parts. Eventually, the project was dissolved with the decision of the British Government to cease funding. Babbage's failure to complete the analytical engine can be chiefly attributed to difficulties not only of politics and financing, but also to his desire to develop an increasingly sophisticated computer and to move ahead faster than anyone else could follow. Nevertheless, his son, Henry Babbage, completed a simplified version of the analytical engine's computing unit (the mill) in 1888. He gave a successful demonstration of its use in computing tables in 1906.
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Analog computers
Sir William Thomson's third tide-predicting machine design, 1879–81
During the first half of the 20th century, many scientific computing needs were met by increasingly sophisticated analog computers, which used a direct mechanical or electrical model of the problem as a basis for computation. However, these were not programmable and generally lacked the versatility and accuracy of modern digital computers.[18] The first modern analog computer was a tide-predicting machine, invented by Sir William Thomson in 1872. The differential analyser, a mechanical analog computer designed to solve differential equations by integration using wheel-and-disc mechanisms, was conceptualized in 1876 by James Thomson, the brother of the more famous Lord Kelvin.
The art of mechanical analog computing reached its zenith with the differential analyzer, built by H. L. Hazen and Vannevar Bush at MITstarting in 1927. This built on the mechanical integrators of James Thomson and the torque amplifiers invented by H. W. Nieman. A dozen of these devices were built before their obsolescence became obvious. By the 1950s the success of digital electronic computers had spelled the end for most analog computing machines, but analog computers remained in use during the 1950s in some specialized applications such as education (control systems) and aircraft (slide rule).
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Digital computers
Electromechanical
By 1938 the United States Navy had developed an electromechanical analog computer small enough to use aboard a submarine. This was the Torpedo Data Computer, which used trigonometry to solve the problem of firing a torpedo at a moving target. During World War II similar devices were developed in other countries as well.
Replica of Zuse's Z3, the first fully automatic, digital (electromechanical) computer.
Early digital computers were electromechanical; electric switches drove mechanical relays to perform the calculation. These devices had a low operating speed and were eventually superseded by much faster all-electric computers, originally using vacuum tubes. The Z2, created by German engineer Konrad Zuse in 1939, was one of the earliest examples of an electromechanical relay computer.
In 1941, Zuse followed his earlier machine up with the Z3, the world's first working electromechanical programmable, fully automatic digital computer. The Z3 was built with 2000 relays, implementing a 22 bit word length that operated at a clock frequency of about 5–10 Hz. Program code was supplied on punched film while data could be stored in 64 words of memory or supplied from the keyboard. It was quite similar to modern machines in some respects, pioneering numerous advances such as floating point numbers. Rather than the harder-to-implement decimal system (used in Charles Babbage's earlier design), using a binary system meant that Zuse's machines were easier to build and potentially more reliable, given the technologies available at that time. The Z3 was Turing complete.
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Digital computers
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