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Write the sentences from the exercise 1.10 in interrogative form.
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Make question of different types to each sentence as in the model.
Any reform involves the modernization of agriculture.
Does any reform involve the modernization of agriculture?
What involves the modernization of agriculture?
Does any reform involve or except the modernization of agriculture?
Any reform involves the modernization of agriculture, doesn’t it?
1. Changes in the pattern of cultivation relate directly to cultivation, land yield, and labour productivity.
2. Mechanization causes displacement of labour.
3. Technological advance usually implies mechanization.
1.13 Translate the nouns formed with suffix –tion. Transcribe the words.
Redemption, expansion, cultivation, migration, compensation, expropriation, acquisition
Translate the Passive forms. Define Tense and Aspect.
Had been usurped, was prohibited, had been abolished, was suspended, was dissolved, had been prohibited, was reallocated
Translate the text.
Ancient reforms
а) Land in ancient Athens was held in perpetuity by the tribe or clan, with individual holdings periodically reallocated according to family size and soil fertility. Population increase, expansion of trade, growth of a money economy, and the opening up of business opportunities eventually made financial transactions in land an economic necessity. Land itself continued to be inalienable, but the right to use the land could be mortgaged. Thus, peasants could secure loans by surrendering their rights to the product of the land, as “sale with the option of redemption.” Lacking other employment, the debtor continued to cultivate the land as hektēmor, or sixth partner, delivering five-sixths of the product to the creditor and retaining the rest for himself. Mortgaged land was marked by horoi, or mortgage stones, which served as symbols of land enserfment. When Solon was elected archon, or chief magistrate, c. 594 BC, his main objective was to free the land and destroy the horoi. His reform law, known as the seisachtheia, or “shaking-off the burdens,” cancelled all debts, freed the hektēmoroi, destroyed the horoi, and restored land to its constitutional holders. Solon also prohibited the mortgaging of land or of personal freedom on account of debt.
The impact of the reform was extensive but of short duration. Two decades of anarchy were followed by a revolution, c. 561 BC, that brought Peisistratus to power. He enforced the reform and distributed lands of his adversaries (who were killed or exiled) among the small holders. He also extended loans to aid cultivation and prevent migration to the city and expanded silver mining to create employment.
b) The Roman reform by Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus came between 133 and 121 BC. The land reform law, or lex agraria, of Tiberius was passed by popular support against serious resistance by the nobility. It applied only to former public land, ager publicus, which had been usurped and concentrated in the hands of large landholders. Land concentration reduced the number of owners and hence the number of citizens and those eligible to serve in the army. In addition, such concentration was accompanied by a shift from cultivation to grazing, which reduced employment and increased the poverty of the peasants, producing a crisis.
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The lex agraria specified minimum and maximum individual landholdings, with an allowance for male children of the family. Excess land would be expropriated and compensation paid for improvements. A standing collegium, or commission, was to enforce the law, but implementation was delayed because Tiberius was killed in the year of its passage. When Gaius was elected tribune about a decade later, he revived the reform and went even further. He colonized new land and abolished rent on small holdings since rent on large holdings had been suspended as compensation for expropriation. Gaius was killed in 121 BC, however, and within a decade the reform was reversed: private acquisition of public land was legalized, the land commission was dissolved, rent on public land was abolished, all holdings were declared private property, and squatting on public land was prohibited. Even colonization was ended, and colonies established by Gaius were broken up.
Answer the questions.
1. Who prohibited the mortgaging of land or of personal freedom on account of debt?
2. Who was a sixth partner in ancient Athens?
3. What did the land reform law of Tiberius specify?
4. What reform did Gaius Gracchus revive?
Find equivalents.
1. заложенная земля
2. предотвращать миграцию населения
3. должник продолжал обрабатывать землю
4. привело к власти
5. сократить занятость
6. колонизировать новую землю
7. серьезное сопротивление знати
Make questions to each sentence as in the model.
The history of reforms began with Greeks and Romans of the 6th and 2nd centuries BC.
Did the history of reforms begin with Greeks and Romans of the 6th and 2nd centuries BC?
When did the history of reforms begin?
Did the history of reforms begin with Greeks or Romans of the 6th and 2nd centuries BC?
The history of reforms began with Greeks and Romans of the 6th and 2nd centuries BC, didn’t it?
1. He freed hektēmoroi.
2. They killed Gaius in 121 BC.
3. The nobility seriously resisted against the land reform of Tiberius.
Compare using of Active and Passive forms and translate.
- realized – were realized
The reformers realized their objectives.
The objectives of the reformers were realized.
- influenced – were influenced
Most of reforms were influenced by the Egyptian example.
The Egyptian example influenced on most of reforms.
Translate using the given words.
- cultivate, tenant, land
Арендаторы обрабатывали землю.
Земля обрабатывалась арендаторами.
- sugar plantation, convert, cooperative
Правительство преобразовало сахарные плантации в кооперативы.
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Сахарные плантации были преобразованы в кооперативы правительством.
Translate the text.
Modern European reforms
a) The French Revolution brought a new era in the history of land reform. On the eve of the Revolution, French society was polarized, with the nobility and clergy on one side and the rising business class on the other. The middle class was relatively small, especially in the rural areas. The majority of the peasants were hereditary tenants, either censiers, who paid a fixed money rent, or serfs, who paid rent in the form of labour services, corvée, of about three days a week. The peasants paid various other feudal dues and taxes, from which the nobility and clergy were exempted. The Revolution overthrew the ancient régime and the feudal order and introduced land reform.
The reform repealed feudal tenures, freed all persons from serfdom, abolished feudal courts, and cancelled all payments not based on real property, including tithes. Rents based on real property were redeemable. Once the law had been passed, however, the peasants seized the land and refused to pay any rents or redemption fees; in 1792 all payments were finally cancelled. Land of the clergy and political emigrants was confiscated and sold at auction, together with common land.
The social and political objectives of the reformers were fully realized. The censiers and serfs became owners. Feudalism was destroyed, and the new regime won peasant support. The economic effects, however, were limited. Incentives could not be increased substantially since the peasants already had full security of tenure prior to the reform. The scale of operations was not changed; and no facilities for credit, marketing, or capital formation were created. The major achievements were the reinforcement of private, individual ownership and perpetuation of the small family farm as a basis of democracy. The small family farm has characterized French agriculture ever since.
b) There were other reforms in most European countries. England resolved its land problems by the enclosure movement, which drove the small peasants into the towns, consolidated landholdings, and promoted large-scale operation and private ownership. Sweden and Denmark pioneered between 1827 and 1830 by peacefully abolishing village compulsion, or imposed labour service, and the strip system of cultivation, by consolidating the land, and by dividing the commons among the peasants. Though influenced by the French Revolution, only after the 1848 revolutions did Germany, Italy, and Spain free the peasants and redistribute the land. Reform in Ireland took a whole century before substantive results were achieved, in the mid-1930s, after Ireland was divided into Northern Ireland and the Irish Free State. The tenants were converted into owners by subsidized purchase of the land.
Answer the questions.
- How was on the eve of the Revolution French society polarized?
- What were social and political objectives of the French reformers?
- How much time took Irish reforms?
- What reform was in Sweden and Denmark?
Find equivalents.
- древний режим и феодальный порядок
- разделяя общее среди крестьян
- церковная десятина
- начинания не могли быть существенными изначально
- были конфискованы и проданы на аукционах
- крепостные, платившие ренту
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