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Translate from Russian into English.
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a) теодолит состоит из телескопа
теодолит состоял из телескопа
теодолит будет состоять из телескопа
b) сигнальные лампы используются как мишени
сигнальные лампы использовались как мишени
сигнальные лампы будут использоваться как мишени
Translate the text and write the verbs in brackets in the correct forms.
Aerial surveying
Aviation and photography have (to revolutionize) detailed mapping of features visible from the air. An aerial photograph (to be) not a map. An important property of vertical aerial photographs (to be) that angles are correctly represented at their centres. Similar distortions (to be) present in photographs of hilly ground. This problem may be (to deal) with in two principal ways.
They are (to depend) on the relative scales of the map and the photographs and on whether contours (to be) required on the map. The old method, adequate for planimetric maps, shows that scales (to be) smaller than the photographs. It was (to use) extensively during and after World War II to map large areas of desert and thinly populated country. Mountainous areas could be (to sketch) in, but the relief was not accurately (to show).
Translate the expressions.
| продолжать съемку измерять угол указывать границу осуществлять измерение обеспечить объяснение | научное определение похожие треугольники необходимое распределение значительное требование |
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Определение высот (Height determination)
Высоты особенностей поверхности над уровнем моря определяются по четырем направлениям: по принципу выравнивания, путем измерения вертикальных углов и расстояний, путем измерения различий в атмосферном давлении, и, начиная с конца 20-го века, с помощью трехмерного спутника или инерциальных систем. Из них первое является наиболее точным направлением. Второе направление является следующим в точности, но быстрее; третье наименее точное, но может быть быстрым, если высоты измеряются с точно установленных точек. Последние два метода требуют сложного оборудования, что по-прежнему очень дорого.
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Translate the thinkways.
| 1. Геодезическая съемка Точная, крупномасштабная Измеряет, определяет, отмечает Знаю, как измерить поверхность Земли Сложно! | 2. Карта Топографическая, географическая Поясняет, указывает, направляет Я представляю поверхность Земли Важно! |
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Hydrography
Surveying of underwater features or hydrographic surveying formerly required techniques very different from ground surveying for two reasons. The surveyor ordinarily was moving instead of stationary, and the surface being mapped could not be seen. The first problem, making it difficult to establish a framework, except near land or in shoal areas, was dealt with by dead reckoning between points, established by astronomical fixes. In effect a traverse would be run with the ship's bearing measured by compass and distances obtained either by measuring speed and time or by a modern log that directly records distances. These have to be checked frequently, because however accurate the log or airspeed indicator and compass, the track of a ship or aircraft is not the same as its course. Crosscurrents or winds continually drive the craft off course, and those along the course affect the speed and the distance run over the ground beneath.
The only way a hydrographer could chart the seabed before underwater echo sounding and television became available was to cast overboard at intervals a sounding line with a lead weight at the end and measure the length of the line paid out when the weight hit the bottom. The line was marked in fathoms, that is, units of one one-thousandth of a nautical mile, or approximately six feet (1.8 metres).
Sounding by lead line is obviously very slow, especially in deep waters, and the introduction of echo sounding in the early 20th century marked a great improvement. It was made possible by the invention of electronic devices for the measurement of short intervals of time.
Answer the questions.
1. What required techniques different from ground surveying?
2. How could a hydrographer chart the seabed before underwater echo sounding and television became available?
3. What marked a great improvement in the early 20th century?
Agree or disagree
1. Surveying of underwater features requires techniques very similar to ground surveying.
2. Sounding by lead line is obviously very fast, especially in deep waters.
3. A hydrographer could chart the seabed before underwater echo sounding and television became available using different methods.
UNIT 3. MAPS
| accumulate cartography diffusion depict descend inconsistency induce latitude locality location longitude map mapmaking margin negligible relief reluctance rudimentary scale specification stimulate tend underestimation | накапливать картография распространение изображать происходить, спускаться несовместимость побуждать, склонять широта местоположение расположение долгота карта изготовление карт граница, поле мелкий, незначительный рельеф нерасположение, магнитное сопротивление элементарный, недоразвитый шкала детализация, подробности поощрять, стимулировать стремиться, направляться переоценка |
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Translate and find the definitions.
| 1.Map 2.Globe 3.Cartography 4.Topographic map 5.Nautical chart 6.Aeronautical chart | a. the art and science of making maps and charts. b. provide essential data for the pilot and air navigator. c. graphic representation, drawn to scale and usually on a flat surface, of features—for example, geographical, geological, or geopolitical—of an area of the Earth or of any other celestial body. d. graphic representation of natural and man-made features of parts of the Earth's surface plotted to scale. e. map represented on the surface of a sphere. f. map of coastal and marine areas, providing information for navigation. |
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History of cartography
Centuries before the Christian Era, Babylonians drew maps on clay tablets, of which the oldest specimens found so far have been dated about 2300 BC. This is the earliest positive evidence of graphic representations of parts of the Earth; it may be assumed that mapmaking goes back much further and that it began among nonliterate peoples.
The earliest maps must have been based on personal experience and familiarity with local features. They doubtless showed routes to neighbouring tribes, where water and other necessities might be found, and the locations of enemies and other dangers. Nomadic life stimulated such efforts by recording ways to cross deserts and mountains, the relative locations of summer and winter pastures, and dependable springs, wells, and other information.
Markings on cave walls that are associated with paintings by primitive man have been identified by some archaeologists as attempts to show the game trails of the animals depicted, though there is no general agreement on this. Similarly, networks of lines scratched on certain bone tablets could possibly represent hunting trails, but there is definitely no conclusive evidence that the tablets are indeed maps.
Many nonliterate peoples, however, are skilled in depicting essential features of their localities and travels. During Captain Charles Wilkes's exploration of the South Seas in the 1840s, a friendly islander drew a good sketch of the whole Tuamotu Archipelago on the deck of the captain's bridge. In North America the Pawnee Indians were reputed to have used star charts painted on elk skin to guide them on night marches across the plains. Montezuma is said to have given Cortés a map of the whole Mexican Gulf area painted on cloth, while Pedro de Gamboa reported that the Incas used sketch maps and cut some in stone to show relief features. Many specimens of early Eskimo sketch maps on skin, wood, and bone have been found.
Find equivalents.
- графические представления частей земли
- местонахождение врагов и другие опасности
- знаки на стенах пещеры
- таблички являются настоящими картами
- изображение целого архипелага Тиамоту на палубе корабля
Answer the questions.
1. How old have the oldest specimens of maps on clay tablets been dated?
2. What have the earliest maps been based on?
3. What was a map of the whole Mexican Gulf area painted on?
Translate the text.
The Roman period
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Although Ptolemy lived and worked at the time of Rome's greatest influence, he was a Greek and essentially a product of that civilization, as was the great library at Alexandria. His works greatly influenced the development of geography, which he defined in mapmaking terms: “representation in picture of the whole known world, together with the phenomena contained therein.” This had considerable influence in directing scholars toward the specifics of map construction and away from the more abstract and philosophical aspects of geography.
One fundamental error that had far-reaching effects was attributed to Ptolemy—an underestimation of the size of the Earth. He showed Europe and Asia as extending over half the globe, instead of the 130 degrees of their true extent. Similarly, the span of the Mediterranean ultimately was proved to be 20 degrees less than Ptolemy's estimate. So lasting was Ptolemy's influence that 13 centuries later Christopher Columbus underestimated the distances to Cathay and India partly from a recapitulation of this basic error.
A fundamental difference between the Greek and Roman philosophies was indicated by their maps. The Romans were less interested in mathematical geography and tended toward more practical needs for military campaigns and provincial administration. They reverted to the older concepts of a disk-shaped world for maps of great areas because they met their needs and were easier to read and understand.
The Roman general Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, prior to Ptolemy's time, constructed a map of the world based on surveys of the then-extensive system of Roman military roads. References to many other Roman maps have been found, but very few actual specimens survived the Dark Ages. It is quite probable that the Peutinger Table, a parchment scroll showing the roads of the Roman world, was originally based on Agrippa's map and subjected to several revisions through medieval times.
The tragic turn of world events during the first few centuries of the Christian Era wrought havoc to the accumulated knowledge and progress of mankind. As with other fields of science and technology, progress in geography and cartography was abruptly curtailed. After Ptolemy's day there even appears to have been a retrogression, as exemplified by the Roman trend away from the mathematical approach to mapping.
Great accumulations of documents and maps were destroyed or lost, and the survival of a large part of Ptolemy's work was probably due to its great prestige and popularity. The only other major work on mapping to survive was Strabo's earlier treatise, albeit with some changes from recopying. Few of the maps and related works of the ancient world have come down to us in their original forms. The tendencies to revise and even recapitulate, when copying manuscripts, are readily understood. Doubtless, the factual content was improved more often than not, but a residual confusion remains when the specimen at hand may be either a true copy of an ancient document or a medieval scholar's version of the subject matter.
Find equivalents.
значительно повлияли на развитие географии
недооценка размера Земли
римляне были менее заинтересованы
отвечали требованиям и были легче для чтения
трагический поворот мировых событий
тенденции сверить и обобщить
версия средневековых ученых
Answer the questions.
1. What did Ptolemy’s works influence in?
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2. What was difference between the Greek and Roman philosophies?
3. Who constructed a map based on the system of Roman military roads?
4. Why were many documents and maps destroyed or lost?
Make questions.
1. One fundamental error that had far-reaching effects was attributed to Ptolemy. (Whom was…….?)
2. The Peutinger Table, a parchment scroll showing the roads of the Roman world, was originally based on Agrippa’s map. (Which…..?)
3. Few of the maps and related works of the ancient world have come down to us in their original forms. (How many………?)
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