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Colloquial type of language
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- is characterised by the unofficiality, spontaneity, informality of the communicative situation
- manifests a conscious, mindful effort in choosing and preferring certain means of expression for the given communicative circumstances,
- is shaped by the immediacy, spontaneity, unpremeditativeness of the communicative situation
Source: <V.A.K.>:9
See: <colloquial words>, <group genitive>; <official style>
Functional stylistics
- deals with sets, “paradigms” (known as <functional style>s) of language units of all levels of language hierarchy serving to accommodate the needs of certain typified communicative situations (Prague School);
- dealing in fact with all the subdivisions of the language and all its possible usages, is the most all-embracing “global” trend in style study
- at large and its specified directions proceed from the situationally stipulated language “paradigms” and concentrate primarily on the analysis of the latter.
Source: <V.A.K.>:7,9
See: <functional style>, <Stylistics>
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Phono-graphical level
includes: <onomatopoeia>, <alliteration>, <assonance>, <graphon>
See: <morphological level>, <Stylistics>
Morphological level
includes: <onomatopoeia>, <morphemic repetition>, <stylistic use of articles>, <negation>, <tense of verbs>, <perfect continuous passive>, <continuous participle>, <continuous infinitive passive>, <perfect infinitive passive>
See: <phono-graphical level>, <syntactical level>, <Stylistics>
(direct) onomatopoeia
звукоподражание
the use of words whose sounds imitate those of the signified object of action (V.A.K.)
e.g. babble, chatter, giggle, grumble, murmur, mutter, titter, whisper; buzz, cackle, croak, crow, hiss, howl, moo, mew, roar; bubble, splash; clink, tinkle; clash, crash, whack, whip, whisk
••
a combination of speech-sounds which aims at imitating sounds produced in nature (wind, sea, thunder, etc.), by things (machines or tools, etc.) by people (sighing, laughter, patter of feet, etc.) and by animals (I.R.G.)
e.g. hiss, powwow, murmur, bump, grumble, sizzle, ding-dong, buzz, bang, cuckoo, tintinnabulation, mew, ping-pong, roar
e.g. Then with enormous, shattering rumble, sludge-puff, sludge-puff, the train came into the station. (A.Saxton)
••
использование слов, фонетический состав которых напоминает называемые в этих словах предметы и явления – звуки природы, крики животных, движения, сопровождающиеся каким-нибудь шумом, речь и различные звуки, которыми люди выражают своё настроение, волю и т.д. (I.V.A.)
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e.g. bubble, splash, rustle, purr, flop, babble, giggle, whistle
e.g.... where white horses and black horses and brown horses and white and black horses and brown and white horses trotted tap-tap-tap tap-tap-tappety-tap over cobble stones...(Ш.О’Кейси)
See: <indirect onomatopoeia>, <phono-graphical level>, <morphological level>
Alliteration
аллитерация
the repetition of consonants, usually in the beginning of words
e.g.... silken sad uncertain rustling of each purple curtain (E.A.Poe)
e.g. The furrow followed free. (S.T.Coleridge)
e.g. The Italian trio tut-tuted their tongues at me. (T.Capote)
e.g. Nothing so exciting, so scandalous, so savouring of the black arts had startled Aberlaw since Trevor Day, the solicitor was suspected of killing his wife with arsenic. (A. Cronin – Citadel)
Source: <V.A.K.>
e.g. Deep into the darkness peering, long I stood there wondering. (E.A.Poe)
••
a) a phonetic <stylistic device>, which aims at imparting a melodic effect to the utterance;
b) repetition of similar sounds, in particular consonant sounds, in close succession, particularly at the beginning of successive words;
e.g. “Gaunt as the ghastliest of glimpses that gleam through the gloom of the gloaming when ghosts go aghast”-poet parodies his own style. (Swinburne - Nephelidia)
e.g. The possessive instinct never stands still. Through florescence and fend, frosts and fires it follows the laws of progression”. (Galsworthy)
e.g. Deep into the darkness peering, long I stood there wondering, fearing, // Doubting, dreaming dreams no mortals ever dared to dream before”. (E.A.Poe)
Source: <I.R.G.>
••
1) повтор согласных или гласных звуков в начале близко расположенных ударных слогов
e.g. Doom is dark and deeper than any sea dingle. (W.Auden)
2) повтор начальных букв
e.g. Apt Alliteration’s artful aid. (W.Auden)
Source: <I.V.A.>
e.g. ”Dead Dufton,” I muttered to myself. “Dirty Dufton”, Dreart Dufton, Dispicable Dufton” – then stopped. (J.Braine) – «Душный Дафтон, – бормотал я себе под нос. – Допотопный Дафтон, Дрянной Дафтон, Дохлый Дафтон …» – и умолк.
See: <repetition>, <phono-graphical level>, <assonance>
Assonance
ассонанс или вокалическая аллитерация
the repetition of similar vowels, usually in stressed syllables (V.A.K.)
e.g. Nor soul helps flesh now // more than flesh helps soul (R.Browning)
e.g. Dreadful young creatures – squealing and squawking. (D.Carter)
••
повторение ударных гласных внутри строки или фразы или на конце её в виде неполной рифмы (I.V.A.)
e.g. Tell this soul, with sorrow laden, if within the distant Aiden, // I shall clasp a sainted maiden, whom the angels name Lenore -- // Clasp a rare and radiant maiden, whom the angels name Lenore? (E.Poe - Raven)
See: <repetition>, <phono-graphical level>, <alliteration>
Euphony
эвфония
a sense of ease and comfort in pronouncing or hearing (V.A.K.)
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e.g. … silken sad uncertain // rustling of each purple curtain … (E.A.Poe)
See: <alliteration>, <assonance>, < rhythm>, <rhyme>
Cacophony
a sense of strain and discomfort in pronouncing or hearing (V.A.K.)
e.g. Nor soul helps flesh now // more than flesh helps soul. (R.Browning)
See: <alliteration>, <assonance>
Graphon
графон
1) intentional violation of the graphical shape of a word (or word combination) used to reflect its authentic pronunciation, to recreate the individual and social peculiarities of the speaker, the atmosphere of the communication act (V.A.K.) (– стилистически релевантное искажение орфографической нормы, отражающее индивидуальные или диалектные нарушения нормы фонетической.) (I.V.A.)
e.g. I had a coach with a little seat in fwont with an iwon wail for the dwiver. (Dickens) – с гашеткой впегеди для кучега.
e.g. You don’t mean to thay that thith ith your firth time. (D. Cusack)
2) all changes of the type (italics, CapiTaliSation), s p a c i n g of graphemes, (hy-phe-na-ti-on, m-m-multiplication) and of lines (V.A.K.)
e.g. ”Alllll aboarrrrrrrd”.
e.g. “Help. Help. HELP” (A.Huxley)
e.g. ”grinning like a chim-pan-zee” (O’Connor)
e.g. Kiddies and grown-ups too-oo-oo // We haven’t enough to do-oo-oo. (R. Kipling)
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Имена нарицательные пишутся с Заглавной буквы при обращении или олицетворении, что придаёт тексту особую значительность и торжественно-приподнятую окраску. Приподнятость может быть иронической, пародийной.
e.g. O Music! Sphere –descended maid, // Friend of Pleasure, Wisdom’s aid! (W. Collins)
e.g. If way to the Better there be, it exacts a full look at the Worst. (Th. Hardy)
Целые слова могут быть набраны большими буквами и выделяются как произносимые с особой эмфазой или особенно громко.
e.g. I didn’t kill Henry. No, NO! (D. Lawrence – The Lovely Lady)
e.g. ”WILL YOU BE QUIET!” he bawled (A. Sillitoe – The key to the door)
Курсивом выделяются эпиграфы, поэтические вставки, прозаический текст, цитаты, слова другого языка, названия упоминаемых произведений (необязательно) и вообще всё, что по отношению к данному тексту является инородным или требует необычного усиления (эмфатический курсив).
e.g. ”You mean you’d like it best.” Little Jon considered. “No, they would, to please me.” (Galsworthy - Awakening)
e.g. Olwen (smiling at him affectionately): You are a baby. … Gordon (furious, rising and taking step forward): You are a rotter, Stanton. (J.B. Pristley)
Source: <I.V.A.>
See: <phono-graphical level>
Morphemic repetition
repetition of a morpheme, both root and affixational, to emphasise and promote it (V.A.K.)
e.g. They unchained, unbolted and unlocked the door. (A. Bennett)
e.g. Laughing, crying, cheering, chaffing, singing, David Rossi’s people brought him home in triumph. (H. Caine)
e.g. Young Blight made another great show of changing the volume, taking up a pen, sucking it, sipping it, and running over previous entries before he wrote. As, “Mr. Alley, Mr. Balley, Mr. Calley, Mr. Dalley, Mr. Falley, Mr. Galley, Mr. Halley, Mr. Lalley, Mr. Malley. And Mr. Boffin. (Dickens)
See: <repetition>, <occasional words>, <morphological level>
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Occasional words
Nonce-words
extension of the normative valency which results in the formation of new words
An effective way of using a morpheme for the creation of additional information. They are not neologisms in the true sense for they are created for special communicative situations only, and are not used beyond these occasions.
e.g. I am an undersecretary of an underbureau. (I.Shaw)
e.g. Parritt turns startledly. (E.O’Neill)
e.g. That was masterly. Or should one say mistressly. (A.Huxley)
Source: <I.V.A.>
e.g. mother-in-lowed, not-thereness
Syn.:occasional words, nonce-words
See: <morphemic repetition>
Lexical level
Word-stock
Stratum of words
includes: <literary words>, <neutral words>, <colloquial words>
See: <trope>; <phono-graphical level>, <syntactical level>; <Stylistics>
Literary words
Learned words
Bookish words
High-flown words
- serve to satisfy communicative demands of official, scientific, high poetry and poetic messages, authorial speech of creative prose;
- mainly observed in the written form;
- contribute to the message the tone of solemnity, sophistication, seriousness, gravity, learnedness.
e.g. I must decline to pursue this painful discussion, It is not pleasant to my feelings; it is repugnant to my feelings. (Dickens)
See: <neutral words>, <colloquial words>; <special literary words>; <lexical level>
Source: <V.A.K.>
Syn.: literary words, learned words, bookish words, high-flown words
Colloquial words
- employed in non-official everyday communication;
- mark the message as informal, non-official, conversational;
- their use is associated with the oral form of communication;
e.g. ”dad”, “kid”, “crony”, “fan”, “to pop”, “folks”
d) include <special colloquial words>;
e.g. She’s engaged. Nice guy, too. Though there’s a slight difference in height. I’d say a foot, her favor. (T. Capote)
Source: <V.A.K.>
See: <special colloquial words>, <stratum of words>, <colloquial type of language>
Special colloquial words
<slang>, <jargonisms>, <vulgarisms>, <dialectical words>
Neutral words
the overwhelming majority of lexis (V.A.K.)
See: <literary words>, <colloquial words>
Special literary words
such <literary words> as <terms> and <archaisms> (V.A.K.)
Terms
<special literary words>, denoting objects, processes, phenomena of science, humanities, technique (V.A.K.)
Archaisms
архаизмы
such <special literary words> as
a) historical words – denoting historical phenomena which are no more in use
e.g. ”yeoman”, “vassal”, “falconet”
b) poetic words and highly literary words – used in poetry in the 17 – 19 cc.
e.g. ”steed” - horse, “quoth” - said, “woe” - sorrow, “eftsoons” - again, soon after, “rondure” - roundness
c) archaic words proper – in the course of language history ousted by newer synonymous words or forms;
e.g. “to deem” = to think, “repast” = meal, - for “horse”, “quoth” for “said”, “woe” for “sorrow”; “maketh” = makes, “thou wilt” = you will, “brethren” = brothers, whereof, aforesaid, hereby, therewith, hereinafternamed
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e.g. If manners maketh man, then manner and grooming maketh poodle. (J.Steinbeck)
Source: <V.A.K.>
(general) slang
such <special colloquial words> which
- used by most speakers in very and highly informal, substandard communication
- are highly emotive and expressive and as such
- lose their originality rather fast and
- are replaced by newer formations, unstable, fluctuating, tending to expanded synonymity within certain lexico-semantic groups
e.g. Now take fried, crocked, squiffed, loaded plastered, blotto, tiddled, soaked, boiled, stinko, viled, polluted”(K. Kesey)
e.g. ”Do you talk?” asked Bundle. “or are you just strong and silent?” “Talk?” said Anthony. “I burble. I murmur. I gurgle – like a running brook, you know. Sometimes I even ask questions.” (A. Christie)
Source: <V.A.K.>
e.g. pot, grass, groovy, honkie, cool, chick, dough, bread
See: <special slang>
Jargonisms
Special slang
such <special colloquial words> which
- stand close to <slang>, also being substandard, expressive and emotive, but, unlike slang
- are used by limited groups of people, united either professionally (<professional jargonisms> or <professionalisms>) or socially (<jargonisms proper>)
- cover a narrow semantic field, function and sphere of application
- tending to expanded synonymity within certain lexico-semantic groups
Source: <V.A.K.>
Syn.: jargonisms, special slang
Professional jargonisms
Professionalisms
профессионализмы
such <jargonisms> which
- connected with the technical side of some profession
e.g. ”driller” = borer, digger, wrencher, hogger, brake weight
e.g. ”pipeliner” = swabber, bender, cat, old cat, collar-pecker, hammerman
- are formed according to the existing word-building patterns of present existing words in new <meaning>s, and,
- covering the field of special professional knowledge, which is semantically limited, offer a vast variety of synonymic choices for naming one and the same professional item
See: <special colloquial words>
Source: <V.A.K.>
Syn.: professional jargonisms, professionalism
Jargonisms proper
such <jargonisms> which
- served to conceal the actual significance of the utterance from the uninitiated;
- originated from the thieves’ jargon (l’argo, cant);
- was to be cryptic, secretive (major function);
See: <jargonisms>, <special colloquial words>
Source: <V.A.K.>
Vulgarisms
вульгаризмы
coarse <special colloquial words> with a strong <emotive meaning>, mostly der o gatory, normally avoided in polite conversation (V.A.K.)
e.g. There is so much bad shit between the two gangs that I bet there will be more killings this year.
Source: <V.A.K.>
Dialectical words
диалектизмы
such <special colloquial words> which
- are normative and devoid of any <stylistic meaning> in regional dialects, but used outside of them, carry a strong flavour of the locality where they belong;
- markedly differ on the phonemic level: one and the same phoneme is differently pronounced in each of them;
- differ also on the lexical level, having their own names for locally existing phenomena and also supplying locally circulating <synonyms> for the words, accepted by the language in general.
e.g. ”son of a bitch”, “whore”, “whorehound”
e.g. A hut was all the (= the only) home he ever had.
e.g. Mary sits aside (= beside) of her sister on the bus.
Source: <V.A.K.>
Barbarisms
варваризмы
foreign words of phrases, sometimes perverted
иностранные слова или обороты, противоречащие нормам данного языка
e.g. chic, bonmot, en passant, delicatessen, matador, reprimand, helicopter, hippopotamus, marauder, Midi, guerre des baguettes, boulangers, croissants
Neologisms
неологизмы
new words or expressions
e.g. take-away, high-rise, hang-glider, palmcorder, wristphone, cellular phone,
Lexical stylistic devices
Lexical SDs
include: <metaphor>, <personification>; <metonymy>, <synecdoche>; <cluster SDs>; play on words, <irony>, <epithet>, <hyperbole>, <understatement>, <oxymoron>
See: <set expressions>, <cluster SDs>, <tropes>, <syntactical SDs>, <lexico-syntactical SDs>, <stylistic device>
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Transference
перенос
act of name-exchange, of substitution of the existing names approved by long usage and fixed in dictionaries by new, occasional, individual ones, prompted by the speaker’s subjective original view and evaluation of things, for the name of one object is transferred onto another, proceeding from their similarity (of shape, colour, function, etc.), or closeness (of material existence, cause/effect, instrument/result, part/whole, etc.) (V.A.K.)
See: <metaphor>, <metonymy>
Metaphor
метафора
<transference> of names based on the associated likeness between two objects, on the similarity of one feature common to two different entities, on possessing one common characteristic, on linguistic semantic nearness, on a common component in their semantic structures.
e.g. ”pancake” for the “sun” (round, hot, yellow)
e.g. ”silver dust” and “sequins” for “stars”
The expressiveness is promoted by the implicit simultaneous presence of images of both objects – the one which is actually named and the one which supplies its own “legal” name, while each one enters a phrase in the complexity of its other characteristics.
The wider is the gap between the associated objects the more striking and unexpected – the more expressive – is the metaphor.
e.g. His voice was a dagger of corroded brass. (S. Lewis)
e.g. They walked alone, two continents of experience and feeling, unable to communicate. (W.S.Gilbert)
Source: <V.A.K.>
••
a) the power of realising two <lexical meaning>s simultaneously
b) a <SD> when two different phenomena (things, events, ideas, actions) are simultaneously brought to mind by the imposition of some or all of the inherent properties of one object on the other which by nature is deprived of these properties
Source: <I.R.G.>
••
скрытое сравнение, основанное на ассоциации по сходству, осуществляемое путём применения названия одного предмета к другому и выявляющее таким образом какую-нибудь важную черту второго (I.V.A.)
e.g. … beams that streamed through the open window.
e.g. floods of tears; a storm of indignation; the apple of the eye, a leg of the table.
See: <personification>, <simile>, <lexical SDs>
Personification
олицетворение или персонификация
a <metaphor> that involves likeness between inanimate and animate objects (V.A.K.)
e.g. ”the face of London”, “the pain of ocean”
e.g. Geneva, mother of the Red Cross, hostess of humanitarian congresses for the civilizing of warfare. (J.Reed)
e.g. Notre Dame squats in the dusk. (E. Hemingway)
••
1) <троп>, который состоит в перенесении свойств человека на отвлечённые понятия и неодушевлённые предметы, что проявляется в валентности, характерной для существительных – названий лица (I.V.A.)
2) транспозиция, при которой явления природы, предметы или животные наделяются человеческими чувствами, мыслями, речью (антропоморфизм) (I.V.A.)
e.g. Roll on, thou dark and deep blue Ocean – roll! (G. Byron)
See: <transposition>, <synecdoche>, <lexical SDs>
Sustained metaphor
Prolonged metaphor
a group (cluster) of <metaphor>s, each supplying another feature of the described phenomenon to present an elaborated image (V.A.K.)
Syn.: <sustained metaphor>, <prolonged metaphor>
Metonymy
метонИмия
<transference> of names based on contiguity (nearness), on extralinguistic, actually existing relations between the phenomena (objects), denoted by the words, on common grounds of existence in reality but different semantic (V.A.K.)
e.g. ”cup” and “tea” in “Will you have another cup?”
e.g. ”My brass will call your brass” (A. Heiley)
e.g. Dinah, a slim, fresh, pale eighteen, was pliant and yet fragile. (C.Holmes)
••
is based on a different type of relation between the dictionary and <contextual meaning>s, a relation based not on identification, but on some kind of association connecting the two concepts which these meanings represent (I.R.G.)
••
- <троп>, основанный на ассоциации по смежности: вместо названия одного предмета употребляется название другого, связанного с первым постоянной внутренней или внешний связью (I.V.A.)
e.g. Give everyman thy ear and few thy voice. (W.Shakespeare)
e.g. the Crown (The Queen), cup (a drink), hand (a worker), cars full of moustaches (men), a beard (a man with beard), the Kremlin (the RF government)
See: <synecdoche>, <lexical SDs>
Synecdoche
синекдоха
a <metonymy> based on the relations between the part and the whole (V.A.K.)
e.g. He made his way through perfume and conversation. (I.Shaw)
e.g. His mind was alert and people asked him to dinner not for old times’ sake, but because he was worth his salt. (Maugham)
••
- разновидность метонимии, состоящая в замене одного названия другим по признаку партитивного количественного отношения между ними. Например, название целого заменяется названием его части, общее – названием частного, множественное число – единственным и наоборот. (I.V.A.)
See: <personification>, <lexical SDs>
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Cluster SDs
a small group (cluster) of SDs, which
- operate on the same linguistic mechanism: namely, one word-form is deliberately used in two <meaning>s;
- have humorous effect, and
- include: <pun> or <paronomasia> or <play on words>, <zeugma>, <violation of phraseological units>, <semantically false chains>, <nonsense of non-sequence>;
Source: <V.A.K.>, 48
See: <lexical SDs>, <syntactical SDs>, <lexico-syntactical SDs>, <stylistic device>
Pun
Paronomasia
Play on words
парономасия, игра слов
simultaneous realisation of two <meaning>s through
a) misinterpretation of one speaker’s utterance by the other, which results in his remark dealing with a different meaning of the misinterpreted word or its homonym
e.g. ”Have you been See ing any spirits?” “Or taking any?” – added Bob Allen. (Dickens) (The first “spirit” refers to supernatural forces the second one – to strong drinks)
b) speaker’s intended violation of the listener’s expectation
e.g. There comes a period in every man’s life, but she is just a semicolon in his. (B.Evans) (a punctuation mark instead of an interval of time)
e.g. There are two things I look for in a man. A sympathetic character and full lips. (I.Shaw)
Source: <V.A.K.>, 48
e.g. The Importance of being Earnest (Wilde)
e.g. ”Bow to the board,” said Bumble. Oliver brushed away tow or three tears that were lingering in his eyes; and See ing no board but the table. fortunately bowed to that” (Dickens)
••
близость звучания контекстуально связанных слов. (I.V.A.)
e.g. But still he strummed on, and his mind wandered in and out of poultry and politics,... (Galsworthy)
Syn.: pun, paronomasia, play on words
See: <cluster SDs>
Zeugma
зевгма
a cluster SD, when a polysemantic verb that can be combined with nouns of most varying semantic groups is deliberately used with two of more homogeneous members, which are not connected semantically
Source: <V.A.K.>, 49
e.g. He took his hat and his leave. (Dickens)
e.g. He lost his hat and his temper. (Dickens)
e.g. She went home, in a flood of tears and a sedan chair. (Dickens)
e.g. The Rich arrived in pairs and also in Rolls Royces. (Dickens)
e.g. She plunged into privileged intimacy and into the middle of the room.
••
a) the use of a word in the same grammatical but different semantic relations to two adjacent words in the context, the semantic relations being, on the one hand, literal, and, on the other, transferred
b) the realisation of two <meaning>s with the help of a verb which is made to refer to different subjects or objects (direct or indirect)
e.g. Dora, plunging at once into privileged intimacy and into the middle of the room. (B.Shaw)
e.g. … Whether the Nymph // Shall stain her Honour or her new Brocade // Or lose her Heart or necklace at a Ball (Pope – The rape of the Lock)
Source: <I.R.G.>
••
Английские авторы часто используют этот приём для создания определённого юмористического или иронического эффекта.
e.g. And now must come swift action, for we have here some four thousand words and not a tear shed and never a [u]pistol, joke safe, nor bottle cracked[/u]. (O.Henry)
e.g. Michael … suggested to the camera that it would miss the train. It at once took a final photograph of Michael in front of the hut, two cups of tea at the manor, and its departure. (Galsworthy)
e.g. Шли три студента, один – в кино, другой – в сером костюме, третий – в хорошем настроении.
Source: Комиссаров В.Н. – Слово о переводе. М., 1973
See: <semantically false chains>, <cluster SDs>
Semantically false chains
a variation of <zeugma> when the number of homogeneous members, semantically disconnected, but attached to the same verb, increases (V.A.K.)
e.g. A Governess wanted. Must possess knowledge of Romanian, Russian, Italian, Spanish, German, Music and Mining Engineering. (S. Leacock)
e.g. Men, pals, red plush seats, white marble tables, waiters in white aprons. Miss Moss walked through them all. (A.Milne)
See: <cluster SDs>
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