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The Past and the Future of the Laser 7 глава
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EXAMPLE: to carry out underwater welding / to use robots
It is hardly possible to carry out underwater welding without using robots.
to calculate at high speed / to apply a computer
to make further experiments / to estimate the results obtained
to control this robot / to reprogramme
to make the robot move / to use actuators
to make exact measurements / to use a laser
to apply new technologies in industry / to test them first
b) Name 5 actions we cannot live without.
VI. Do (or would) you mind doing these things? Explain why not.
EXAMPLE: to experiment with a laser
I don't mind experimenting with a laser because it is very interesting.
to have a robot at home
to watch the Skyworker robot in operation
to develop robotics further
to explore distant galaxies with the help of robots
to test artificial intelligence
to create a child robot
VII. Discuss the following questions with your partner. Pay attention to
the use of prepositions with gerunds.
EXAMPLE: How did they improve the results of the first experiment?
They improved the results of the first experiment by doing further research.
1. What are robots capable of?
2. What do some researchers insist on?
3. What are remote control devices Used for?
4. What do scientists object to?
5. What have the latest developments in science resulted in?
6. What did different scientists receive the Nobel prize for?
VIII. Restore the original sentences.
1. it is worth, devices, buying, high-quality
2. on completing the test, results, found, the researcher, interesting
3. is not, compiling, a complex task, a programme
4. carrying out the test, must, the operator, before, prepare, all
necessary equipment
5. insisted on, the teacher, the lab work, our carrying out,
immediately
6. analysing, we, interested, this phenomenon, were, in
IX. Insert prepositions (at, of, without, instead of) if necessary.
1. People get tired... doing the same work for a long time.
2. Science is worth... developing.
3. Intelligent machines are clever... performing various tasks.
4. What is the use... creating playing robots?
5. You had better check the calculations... doing another test.
6. Quick processing of information is impossible... applying
computers.
7. They suggest... using another actuator.
X. Correct mistakes in the following sentences.
1. I know everything of their researched artificial intelligence.
2. Scientists invented a new way investigating space.
3. The engineers object-carrying out the experiment.
4. He will be quite capable to do all the calculations by himself.
5. The idea of use robots for performing difficult tasks is extremely old.
6. Do you mind of my testing the new robot?
7. Without analyse evidence you will result in making mistakes.
XI. Translate the sentences into English using your active vocabulary.
1. Стоит ли покупать это оборудование? - Да, безусловно. Я да
же настаиваю на его покупке.
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2. Робот - это устройство, способное выполнять действия само-
стоятельно.
3. Если вас интересует выполнение подсчетов, вам лучше ис-
пользовать персональный компьютер.
4. При анализе данных исследователи получили интересные
результаты.
5. Составление программы - задача достаточно сложная.
6. Данный метод решения этой проблемы является наилучшим.
7. Это открытие привело к получению очень важных данных.
8. Вы не против, если я проведу этот эксперимент? - Безусловно, нет.
Reading and Speaking
I. These words are taken from the text. Use the dictionary to find out their
meanings.
defuse, v qualify, v
smith, n salary, n
ashtray, n solder, v
turn on smb, v dull, adj
take over sth, v teammate, n
II. You already know quite a lot about robots. Discuss the following
questions with your friend.
1. What is a robot?
2. What does the word 'robot' mean?
3. When did first robots appear?
4. What are the most common applications of robots today?
Scan the text to check your answers.
III. Read the text attentively to find something new about robots.
Robots in Perspective
If you think robots belong to space movies, think again. Right now, all over the world, robots are on the move. Putting chocolates into boxes, walking into live volcanoes, driving trains in Paris and defusing bombs in Northern Ireland are their common tasks. Today's robots are doing more and more things humans can't do or don't want to do.
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The idea of creating an intelligent
machine is very old. Homer described gold
girls, mechanical helpers built by
Hephaistos, the Greek god of smiths. In
1495, Leonardo da Vinci designed
a mechanical man. But only the invention
of transistors and integrated circuits in the
1950s and 1960s made real robots possible.
Compact, reliable electronics and computers
added brains to already existing machines. In 1959, researchers
demonstrated the possibility of robotic manufacturing ashtrays.
The Czech word 'robota', meaning hard work, was first used by
the writer Karel Chapek in the story where robots are invented to
help people by performing simple tasks, but being used to fight wars,
they turn on their human masters and take over the world.
There's no precise definition of a robot. It is normally defined as a programmable machine imitating an intelligent creature. Getting information from its surroundings and doing something physical (moving or manipulating objects) qualify a machine as a robot.
Name a boring or dangerous job. Somewhere, a robot is probably doing it. Robots are ideal for doing jobs that require repetitive, precise and fast movements. Robots are good at doing the same thing without asking for a safe working environment, salary, breaks, food and sleep, without getting bored or tired, without making mistakes. Factories are so highly automated that most human workers carry out only supervising and maintaining the robots.
People keep finding new uses for robots - making and packing drugs and foods, soldering tiny wires to semiconductor chips, inserting integrated circuits onto printed circuit boards used in electronics, working in radioactive "hot zones", exploring space.
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All work and no play make anyone dull - even a robot. Soccer-playing robots gather each year at RoboCup, an international event collecting over 100 teams from 35 countries. Robotic players use radio signals to coordinate their actions with their teammates. Teams are placed in divisions based on size, ranging from the size of a pizza box. By 2050, the organizers of RoboCup count on developing a team of fully autonomous humanoid robots that can beat the human world champion team in soccer.
IV. Provide extensive answers to the following questions.
1. Can you prove that robots belong not only to space movies?
2. What were the first ideas of a robot?
3. Why did real robots appear only in the late 50s?
4. Who coined the word 'robot'?
5. What is the idea of K. Chapek's story?
6. Why is there no exact definition of a robot?
7. What two factors determine a robot?
8. Have robots replaced man in all kinds of activities?
9. What are the basic applications of robots? Where else can they be
used in the future?
10. How do robots play soccer?
V. Will you agree to these statements? Give reasons for your opinion.
1. Right now, all over the world, robots are on the move.
2. The idea of creating an intelligent machine is very old.
3. Name a boring or dangerous job. Somewhere, a robot is probably
doing it.
4. All work and no play make anyone dull - even a robot.
5. Robots will replace professional sportsmen in the future.
6. Robots must not be allowed to compete with humans.
VI. Have you heard K. Chapek's story, in which robots turned out to be
dangerous for man. Nevertheless, robots are found increasingly
replacing man in various activities. Discuss the problem with your
partner who has a different opinion. Can you reach a compromise?
The optimist: you believe robots are safe, useful and have a great
future.
The pessimist: you do not like the idea of artificial mind and find robots too dangerous to be developed and applied
further.
You can begin like this:
- Hello,... Why are you so happy?
- Haven't you heard the news? We have got a brand-
new robot for our lab!
-Oh...
Further Reading
I. These words are taken from the text. Use the dictionary to find out their meaning.
ultrasonic, adj corresponding, adj
navigate, v exposure, n
infrared, adj response, n
gearbox, n detect, v
linear, adj pursue, v
II. Look at the photos attentively. What is the text going to be about?
Skan the text to find answers to these questions.
1. What kind of machine is a robot?
2. What can a robot sense?
3. What are the functions of the light sensors?
4. How does a robot 'see'?
5. What is the difference between a robot and a computer?
6. Is the actuator a device for thinking?
III. Read the text more attentively to learn more about robots.
Advances in Robotics
A robot is a machine that gathers information about its environment (senses) and uses that information (thinks) to follow instructions to do work (acts).
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Imitating humans, robots also sense magnetic fields and ultrasonic waves. Robotic light sensors work by creating or changing an electric signal when light falls on them. When navigating, the robot sends out a beam of infrared light, which bounces off objects and returns to a light sensor of the robot. However, making 3D images requires large amounts of computer memory.
The ability to move sets robots apart from computers. A mechanical device for producing motion is known as an actuator. A single robot is supplied with dozens of actuators, each chosen to do a specific task. Electric motors are actuators that produce motion from electricity by the electromagnetic effect. Their high speed and a small turning power make a gearbox necessary. Special stepper motors turning in precise 'steps' are ideal for adjusting position. A servomotor is used for turning only 90" to the right or left. If you've ever driven a toy car, boat, or plane by remote control, a servomotor was probably responsible for the steering. Solenoids are electric motors for producing linear, or in-and-out motion. Solenoids are used in switches turning things off and on. Although making a robot move like a person is not easy, engineers at Honda have designed robots capable of walking, climbing stairs and keeping their balance - no two-legged robot has ever done it before.
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How to make robots think? There are three approaches to
Artificial intelligence.
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Most robots have a microcomputer for
'brains', which allows programming a lot of information. But they work only according to their programme and cannot learn. Neural networks are modelled after the human brain. A neural net 'learns' by exposure to lots of input and corresponding output. Once trained, the neural net responds to an input with a likely output. Unlike rule-based systems, neural networks are incapable of giving definite answers.
Stimulus-response robots pioneered by Rodney
Brooks at MIT have no memory and no logical decision-making - only hard-wired responses to stimulation.
Can a robot be conscious in the way that we are? So far, no artificial intelligence has ever shown such signs of life. However, if robots eventually think like us, detect and express emotions, pursue their own interests and even make copies of themselves, drawing the line between machines and living things will be increasingly difficult.
IV. What is necessary to create moving robots? Fill in the table with the data from the text.
| Mechanism | Function |
| Actuator … | … … |
V. Will you agree with the following statements? Give your reasons.
1. It is impossible to create thinking machines.
2. The three approaches to artificial intelligence are all imperfect.
3. 'Computer brains' have numerous disadvantages.
4. Neural networks are modelled after the human brain but they are
worse than rule-based systems.
5. Stimulus-response robots 'live and learn' like children. This makes
them dangerous as it is difficult to foresee their reaction and they
can get too clever.
VI. You are taking part in the students' conference devoted to the latest
achievements in technology. Deliver a report on the topic 'Robots -
humans with artificial intelligence'.
Activity
I. Most people find robots dangerous. They have good reasons to think
so. How will you comment on the idea of this paragraph? Would you like
to have such a future?
Silicon-based life forms are seen by some as the next step in evolution, replacing carbon-based life forms like us. Robots becoming more intelligent and capable, we can soon be out of control. However, if robots do develop consciousness, they may also develop conscience and choose to be kind to their human creators. In the meantime, we may want to remember where the 'off-switch' is... just in case.
II. Robotics is a quickly developing science. It certainly brings
advantages but also puts difficult questions. Here are some of them.
Discuss these questions in small groups.
1. If in the future machines have the ability to think, be conscious
and have feelings, then what makes a human being a human being,
and a robot a robot?
2. Would you like to have a robot to do any task you like or do not
want to do yourself? If yes, how do you think this can affect you as a
person?
3. Are there any kinds of robots that shouldn't be created? Why?
4. Do you think the development of new technologies, and their
application, are inevitable? Should we do anything for the people who
will lose their jobs when replaced by robots? If yes, what?
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5. Do you think a special law on robots must be made? Will you agree
with these Three Laws of Robotics, 'created' by Isaak Asimov?
a) A robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction,
allow a human being to come to harm.
b) A robot must obey the orders given to it by human beings,
except where such orders conflict with the first law.
c) A robot must protect its own existence, as long as this does not
conflict with the first two laws.
Writing
I. Study the example and write your own advertisement of a new model of a robot.
A Robot's Best Friend
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Tired of walking your dog and finding its hair everywhere? Sony's robotic dog, AIBO, may be for you.
AIBO is a totally autonomous robot capable of hearing and seeing, sensing balance and touch. Eighteen specialized motors allow such dog-like motions as rolling over, scratching, playing dead, and chasing a pink ball. Like a puppy, with time and training AIBO develops perfect movements and unique behaviour patterns. Programmed to seek companionship, AIBO simulates emotions like happiness, surprise, and anger and is clever at responding to verbal commands.
II. Translate the passage into Russian. Use the dictionary if necessary.
Some scientists predict that advances in robotics, genetic engineering and nanotechnology will lead to a world populated by superorganisms both biological and mechanical. When we built machines that are like us, only smarter, stronger and more easily produced, they say, we are in fact creating our own worst enemy These machines will develop new forms of thinking that will be beyond our comprehension. If we can't understand what we have built, we will not be able to control it. The scientists say that we have some 20 years of intellectual superiority over computers. By that time the robots will have learnt a lot. They will deserve the same rights and privileges because they will be like humans.
We're probably decades away from having to worry about! anything more than running out of batteries. Still, it seems clear that big changes are coming, and as with any new technology, there will certainly be some unintended, and quite possibly unpleasant, consequences as robots begin to play a regular role in our day-to-day lives. But the potential benefits outweigh the risks. Let's hope that the society is strong and wise enough to stop abuses without stopping science.
Unit Seventeen
DANGERS
OF NEW TECHNOLOGIES
Section A. Laser
Lead-in
I. Discuss the following questions.
a) What is a laser? Where are lasers applied?
b) Are lasers dangerous? If so, give your reasons.
II. Listen to the conversation and learn what a laser is and how it works.
Teacher: Hello, my friends. Today, I'm going to show you an
operating laser.
Ivan: That's great! By the way, what does the word 'laser' mean?
Teacher: It denotes light amplification by stimulation of emission of radiation. Looking at the operating laser one can see it producing a very powerful beam of light.
Ivan: When did the first lasers appear, I wonder?
Teacher: As far as I know, in the 1960s. Yet, we hear of their having numerous applications. Industrial welding, cutting materials, making measurements, etc. will be practically impossible without this device.
Ivan: And how do lasers work?
Teacher: Their work is based on the principle of amplifying the light of a certain wavelength in the resonator cavity.
Ivan: I'm rather interested in making experiments with laser beams.
Teacher: Then let's try to make one. But be very careful. Lasers can be very dangerous.
Ivan: Why are they dangerous?
Teacher: Well, they produce a very powerful beam of light and if
treated in the wrong way it can hurt or even kill you.
Ivan: Oh, I'm pretty scared.
Teacher: Don't worry. If you follow all the safety instructions nothing will happen to you.
III. Complete the dialogue.
- We are going to..., aren't we?
-....But first, I'd like you... questions. To begin with,...?
- The word 'laser'...
-OK. Then...?
- A very powerful...
-The first......... they?
- No, you are.... They appeared about... ago.
- And... many uses?
- Without any doubts....
- I also would like you...
- Oh, that is easy.... is in the basis of laser operation.
- I see. Why are lasers considered...?
- …
- That's pretty scary.
- …
- Fine.
IV. Match a line in A with a line in B.
А В
1. Are lasers amplifiers or a) It is a device for increasing the
oscillators? strength of a signal.
2. What is an oscillator? b) Welding, cutting, holography.
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3. What is an amplifier? c) It is a generator or source of
4. What makes lasers light.
dangerous?. d) Oscillators.
5. What are lasers used for? e) When treated inadequately.
6. When does the laser become f) Their producing an extremely
a source of destruction? powerful beam of light.
Language Practice
Vocabulary
I. Match the words with their definitions.
1. laser, n a) to send out heat, light, sound
2. behaviour, n b) in only one colour
3. cavity, n c) the larger number or amount
4. majority, n d) an apparatus for producing a very hot
5. amplifier, n narrow beam of light used for cutting metals
6. to emit, v e) acting in a particular way
7. monochromatic, adj f) a hole or hollow space in a solid mass
g) an instrument for making a signal stronger
II. Match the words with the similar meaning.
synthetic feature
exactly powerful
characteristic usage
application to offer
to suggest to possess
single artificial
strong precisely
to have separate
III. Find in the list these parts of speech.
(noun) amplify, weak, absorption, to treat
(noun) partially, excited, bounce, pulse
(adjective) activate, solution, flat, principle
(adjective) tiny, purify, majority, totally
(adverb) intense, forth, numerous, since
(adverb) powerful, infrared, exactly, cavity
(preposition) input, actually, via, ultraviolet
(verb) radiation, synthetic, reflective, manipulate
(verb) emit, unique, oscillator, quality
Grammar: Gerund and Participle I
IV. Continue the sentences in two possible ways.
EXAMPLE: experimenting with lasers
Experimenting with lasers is very dangerous.
Experimenting with lasers you must observe safety rules.
1. Studying industrial gases...
2. Playing volleyball with robots...
3. Discovering new worlds...
4. Converting the energy of wind into electricity...
5. Travelling at the speed of light...
6. Applying laser technologies...
4 Часть 2
V. These sentences have a different structure but the same meaning.
Change the structure of the sentences below so as to keep their
meanings.
EXAMPLE: To make a hologram is rather difficult. Making a hologram is rather difficult.
1. To produce a powerful beam of light is possible with the help of a
laser.
2. To recognize a problem is the first step to its solution.
3. To establish relationship between naturtal phenomena is a major
task of his theory.
4. To introduce the invention into practice sometimes requires more
effort than making it.
5. To point out the mistakes to some people proves quite difficult.
6. To analyze the evidence correctly requires a lot of attention.
VI. Shorten these sentences but do not change their meanings.
EXAMPLE: Having made a hologram we drew up a laboratory report.
On (after) making a hologram we drew up a laboratory report.
1. Having recognized the problem the scientist tried to find its
solution.
2. Having changed the light spectrum we received another hologram.
3. Having invented the laser man expanded his possibilities.
4. Having studied the specific features of a new laser we put it into
operation.
5. Having considered all the factors the engineers changed the whole
system.
6. Having applied the laser at the works we increased the production
dramatically.
VII. What is the difference between these things? Ask your partner for
explanations.
EXAMPLE: the boiling point / boiling water
A: - Peter, could you tell me what the boiling point is? B: - Sure. It's the temperature at which the liquid boils. A: - And what is boiling water? B: - Oh, It's quite simple. It's the water that boils.
1. building block / building crane
2. melting point / melting metal
3. driving licence / driving man
4. cooling system / cooling surface
5. reading material / reading students
6. working conditions / working device
VIII. Restore the original sentences.
1. without being helped, the laser, won't succeed, in testing, he
2. a laser, in making, should use, you, a hologram
3. man, having invented, is capable of, the laser, light shows,
successfully, producing
4. became possible, after the appearance, making holograms, in
the 1960s, of a laser
5. all his knowledge and experience, applied, this work, doing, he
6. will provide, applying, another solution, the new device, to the
problem
IX. Translate the sentences into English using your active vocabulary.
1. Имея разные уровни энергии, электроны нижних уровней могут переходить на более высокие путем поглощения света или тепла.
2. Без использования лазера голограмма невозможна.
3. Используя новый метод, они изменили спектр света.
4. Получение мощного луча возможно только с помощью лазера.
5. Проводя эксперименты с лазером, профессор объяснял студентам принцип его работы.
6. Выполнение этой работы требует опыта.
7. Учет отдельных компонентов изменит всю систему.
8. Что такое 'melting substance'? - Это вещество, которое плавится. A 'melting point' - это точка плавления.
Reading and Speaking
I. Practise reading these words.
coherence [ksu'hiarsns]
wavelength ['weivlerjB]
characteristic [,ka3nkt3'nstik]
II. Lasers appeared not long ago but we find it immensely difficult to
imagine our life without them. What do you know about the history of
lasers? When did they appear? Who constructed the first-known laser?
What materials produce laser action? Scan the text to get the answers
to these questions.
IIl. Study the text for more detailed information about lasers.
The Past and the Future of the Laser
A laser is a source of light but unlike anything that had ever been seen before 1960 when Theodore H. Maiman of Hughes Aircraft placed a specially prepared synthetic ruby rod inside a powerful flash lamp similar to the type used for high-speed photography. Activating the flash lamp produced an intense pulse of red light, which possessed the unique properties of monochromicity (the light is of the same wavelength or colour), coherence (all the waves move precisely in step), and directionality (the beam can be easily manipulated). These features account for the enormous difference between the output of a laser and that of an incandescent light bulb.
With Maiman's invention the laser age was born. Everybody became interested in exploring this promising area of science. Within a very short time, numerous solid-state materials, gases, liquids, and semiconductor crystals were found possessing laser qualities. Almost every imaginable material was tried in order to produce new and interesting lasers. Even some varieties of jelly brand dessert were announced emitting xenon light, and according to this legend, they are supposed to work fairly well.
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