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Практические задания. American Assumptions and Values. Form of Action. Form of Social Relations
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Практические задания
1 Read the text and answer the questions given below.
American Assumptions and Values
The components used to analyze a given culture are: form of activity, form of relation to others, perception of the world and perception of the self.
Form of Action
The orientation to action, or the phase preceding behaviour, is frequently conceived as decision-making or problem-solving. In face-to-face situations the locus of both the action and the decision to act lies with the individual. Its foundation is established early in life. From the earliest age, the American child is encouraged to decide for himself – to make up his own mind; he is encouraged to believe he himself is the best judge of what he wants and what he should do. Among Americans, the individual is the locus both of decision-making and responsibility for it.
The final aspect of the American’s orientation toward action is his emphasis on choice. After anticipating the future, and, specifically, the consequences or effects of his actions, he then chooses that course which will produce the preferred consequences.
Work and Play . One of the most important distinctions in the forms of activity in American life is the separation of work and play. Work is pursued for a living. It is what a man must do and he is not necessarily supposed to enjoy it. Play, on the other hand, is relief from drudgery and regularity of work and is enjoyable in its own right although many Americans engage in recreation with the same seriousness of purpose expended on work.
Temporal Orientation. The American’s concepts of work and action are attached to his orientation toward the future. The unpleasantness which may be connected with work and the stress of doing result in the cultural values of change and progress. These values, however, are not part of societies which look either to the present (as in Latin America) or the past (China, for example) and, hence, tend to focus on immediate conditions or on traditions rather than the immediate steps required for change and progress toward the future. These differences in temporal orientation are distinguishing marks of cultures and are very important since time is a major component in any constellation of values. For Americans the orientation toward the future and the high value placed on action yield the principle that one can improve upon the present. Action and hard work will bring about what the individual wants; hence Americans are described as having the attribute of effort-optimism. Through one’s effort or hard work one will achieve one’s ambitions.
a) What are the main American assumptions and values?
b) What does the form of action comprise?
c) What is implied by decision-making?
d) Is the concept of the separation of work and play in English, American and Russian / Belarussian cultures the same? What is meant by it?
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e) What is the difference in temporal orientation in different cultures? Which type of temporal orientation do you approve of? Why?
Form of Social Relations
Personal relationships are numerous and marked by friendliness, informality, equality, cooperation and fair play.
Equality. Runningthroughout the American’s social relationships with others is the theme of equality. It is clear that his cultural values predispose the American to function most effectively on an interpersonal level of equality.
Although all persons are presumed to have equal rights and obligations, not everyone is presumed to be of equal talent and ability. The acceptance of inequality of potentialities is tempered by the typical American belief that in any grouping there are people of ability and leadership potential. Equality does not extend to achievements, success or reward.
Informality and Formality. Americans tend to treat other people with the informality and directness. When Americans employ their direct, brusque manners in dealing with other people, they are likely to insult or confuse members from other cultures. When Americans fail to use the accepted forms of address, language and manner, they also fail to accord the proper deference, and perhaps worst of all, they violate the prescribed methods of structuring social interactions. Whereas the average American considers formality, style, and protocol as pompous and arrogant, these provide dependable expectations in other cultures of behaviour of other persons in social situations.
Friendship. The generalized “friend” of Americans, standing for anyone from a passing acquaintance to a life-time intimate, is maintained according to activities. The company of a friend centers around activity, a thing, an event or shared history. Thus, American friendships originate around work, children, or political opinions – around charities, games, various occasions for sharing food and alcohol, etc. Friendship tends to be generalized only to similar activities or events and to persons who have both social and personal commitments to each other. But these patterns of friendships among Americans – particularly the specialization of friends – do not imply a distrust of people. They signify more often the American reluctance to becoming deeply involved with other persons.
In contrast to the Americans, the Russian expects to form a deep bond with another person and assumes the obligation of almost constant companionship, and the rejection of any reticence or secretiveness among friends.
Cooperation and “Fair Play”. Competition among Americans occurs within the context of cooperation, for competition requires a considerable amount of coordination among individuals and groups. When the individual competes he is most likely at the same time to be cooperating. The Americans pursue their own personal goals while cooperating with others who, likewise, pursue their own. They accept the goals of the group, but if their expectations are unfulfilled they then feel free to leave and join another group. Cooperation is given for the sake of action and it does not imply that the American yields his principles. He is in fact expressing a dominant assumption of American culture – the value of “doing”.
The value of fairness is not confined to face-to-face encounters in formal groups. It has widespread ramifications, often occurring as the value of “fair play”.
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The English notion of “fair play” as modified in the U. S. is both an arbiter of personal relations among Americans and a motivating force. The American will stand up for his fair share and will be concerned with fairness toward others. The significance of the value – accommodation to the weakness of another – is brought out in the mutual misunderstanding of the concepts between Americans and members of other cultures. Americans cannot understand the deliberate and ruthless exploitation of a weak adversary by power and position in other cultures.
a) By what are personal relationships marked?
b) What is implied by equality?
c) How is informality marked?
d) What do Americans friendships originate around?
e) What is implied by “friendship” and “friend” in American culture (English / Russian cultures)? Is friendliness the same thing as friendship?
f) When does cooperation occur? What is expressed by it?
g) What is meant by “fair play”?
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