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Библиография. Об авторе
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Библиография
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Об авторе
Фрэнк Мартела – философ и исследователь в области психологии, специализирующийся на вопросах смысла жизни. Его статьи опубликованы в журналах Scientific American Mind и Salon, о его работах писал онлайн‑ журнал Quartz и рассказывал BBC. Его исследования широко публиковались в целом ряде академических журналов, таких как Journal of Personality, Journal of Positive Psychology, Journal of Happiness Studies, Metaphilosophy, Southern Journal of Philosophy, Motivation and Emotion, и Organization Studies. Он читал лекции перед зрителями более чем ста аудиторий, его приглашали читать лекции университеты четырех континентов, включая Стэнфордский университет и Гарвардский университет. Его интервьюировали New York Times, Fitness, VICE и Monocle. Фрэнк Мартела преподает в университете Аалто в Хельсинки. Подробнее о Фрэнке Мартела: www. frankmartela. com; Twitter @f_Martela.
[1] Roy F. Baumeister & Kathleen D. Vohs, “The Pursuit of Meaningfulness in Life, ” in Handbook of Positive Psychology, eds. Charles R. Snyder & Shane J. Lo‑ pez, 608–618 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), 613.
[2] Lisa L. Harlow, Michael D. Newcomb & Peter M. Bentler, “Depression, Self‑ Derogation, Substance Use, and Suicide Ideation: Lack of Purpose in Life as a Mediational Factor, ” Journal of Clinical Psy‑ chology 42, no. 1 (1986): 5–21; Craig J. Bryan, William B. Elder, Mary McNaughton‑ Cassill, Augustin Osman, Ann Marie Hernandez & Sybil Allison, “Meaning in Life, Emotional Distress, Suicidal Ide‑ ation, and Life Functioning in an Active Duty Mil‑ itary Sample, ” The Journal of Positive Psychology 8, no. 5 (2013): 444–452. For a national‑ level comparison of rates of meaningfulness and rates of suicide, see Shigehiro Oishi & Ed Diener, “Residents of Poor Nations Have a Greater Sense of Meaning in Life Than Residents of Wealthy Nations, ” Psycho‑ logical Science 25, no. 2 (2014): 422–430.
[3] See Michael F. Steger, “Meaning and Well‑ Being, ” in Handbook of Well‑ Being, eds. Ed Diener, Shigehiro Oishi & Louis Tay (Salt Lake City, UT: DEF Pub‑ lishers, 2018).
[4] See Randy Cohen, Chirag Bavishi & Alan Rozanski, “Purpose in Life and Its Relationship to All‑ Cause Mortality and Cardiovascular Events: A Meta‑ Analysis, ” Psychosomatic Medicine 78, no. 2 (2016): 122–133 for a meta‑ analysis of ten prospective studies with a total of 136, 265 participants.
[5] Viktor Frankl, Man’s Search for Meaning (New York: Washington Square Press, 1963), p. 164. The quote is originally from Nietzsche’s book Twilight of the Idols.
[6] Alasdair Maclntyre, After Virtue, 3rd ed. (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 2007).
[7] See especially Christian Welzel, Freedom Rising: Human Empowerment and the Quest for Emancipation (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2013).
[8] Tim Kreider, “The ‘Busy’ Trap, ” New York Times, June 30, 2012. https: //opinionator. blogs. nytimes. c0m/2012/06/30/the‑ busy‑ trap/.
[9] Iddo Landau, Finding Meaning in an Imperfect World (New York: Oxford University Press, 2017), 205.
[10] Томас Карлейль – британский писатель, публицист, историк и философ шотландского происхождения.
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[11] Алан Уилсон Уотс – британский философ, писатель и лектор, известен как переводчик и популяризатор восточной философии для западной аудитории.
[12] Экзистенциальная тревога – осознание возможности и неустранимости смерти, осознание своего небытия, всеобщий глубинный страх конечности жизни и ответственности, налагаемой ею за собственные решения человека.
[13] This view of the human condition is derived from William James and John Dewey, two key figures in the pragmatist philosophical tradition. See Frank Martela, “Pragmatism as an Attitude, ” in Nordic Studies in Pragmatism 3: Action, Belief and Inquiry – Pragmatist Perspectives on Science, Society and Religion, ed. Ulf Zackariasson, 187–207 (Helsinki: Nordic Pragmatism Network, 2015), and the introduction of my second dissertation, Frank Martela, A Pragmatist Inquiry into the Art of Living: Seeking Reasonable and Life‑ Enhancing Values within the Fallible Human Condition (Helsinki: University of Helsinki, 2019).
[14] Albert Camus, Myth of Sisyphus, trans. Justin O’Brien (New York: Vintage Books, 1955).
[15] В греческой мифологии это описывается так: Сизиф, потомок Прометея и сын царя Эола, гордился хитростью ума и всезнанием. Подсмотрев похищение Зевсом нимфы Эгины, он не преминул сообщить об этом ее отцу, богу реки Асопу, в обмен на дарование источников воды его родному городу Коринфу. Зевс низринул Сизифа в Аид, где тот вечно занят бесплодным и тяжким трудом, вкатывая на гору громадный камень, неизменно скатывающийся вниз.
[16] Todd May, A Significant Life: Human Meaning in a Silent Universe (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2015), ix.
[17] Robert N. Bellah, Richard P. Madsen, William M. Sullivan, Ann Swidler & Steven M. Tipton, Habits of the Heart (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985). The quotes below are from pages 20–22 and 76.
[18] Jean‑ Paul Sartre, Existentialism Is a Humanism, trans. Carol Macomber (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007), 29.
[19] Институт Гэллапа (англ. American Institute of Public Opinion) – американский институт общественного мнения, а также другие учреждения по изучению общественного мнения, основанные профессором‑ социологом Джорджем Гэллапом.
[20] E. g., Angus Deaton, “Income, Health and Well‑ Being Around the World: Evidence from the Gallup World Po Yi, ” Journal of Economic Perspectives 22, no. 2 (2008): 53–72.
[21] Shigehiro Oishi & Ed Diener, “Residents of Poor Nations Have a Greater Sense of Meaning in Life Than Residents of Wealthy Nations, ” Psychological Science 25, no. 2 (2014): 422–430.
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[22] These three dimensions of absurdity were identified by Joe Mintoff. See Joe Mintoff, “Transcending Absurdity, ” Ratio 21, no. 1 (2008): 64–84.
[23] Neil deGrasse Tyson, Astrophys ics for People in a Hurry (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2017), 13.
[24] Thomas Nagel, “The Absurd, ” The Journal of Philosophy, 68, no. 20 (1971): 716–727, 717.
[25] Пер. А. Богдановского.
[26] Пер. В. И. Коган.
[27] Mintoff, “Transcending Absurdity. ”
[28] Leo Tolstoy, Confession, trans. David Patterson (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1983), 49.
[29] Carlin Flora, “The Pursuit of Happiness, ” Psychology Today, January 2009. Available online: https: //www. psychologytoday. com/intl/articles/200901/the‑ pursuit‑ happiness.
[30] Darrin M. McMahon, “From the Happiness of Virtue to the Virtue of Happiness: 400 b. c. ‑ a. d. 1780, ” Daedalus 133, no. 2 (2004): 5–17.
[31] Чосер Джефри – средневековый английский поэт, «отец английской поэзии».
[32] Geoffrey Chaucer, The Canterbury Tales, rendered into Modern English by J. U. Nilson (Mineola, NY: Dover Publications, 2004), 215.
[33] See, e. g., Roy F. Baumeister, “How the Self Became a Problem: A Psychological Review of Historical Research, ” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 52, no. 1 (1987), 163–176.
[34] For a history of happiness, see especially Darrin M. McMahon, The Pursuit of Happiness: A History from the Greeks to the Present (London: Allen Lane, 2006).
[35] In 1689, John Locke declared that the “pursuit of happiness” moved the human. John Locke, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (London: Penguin Books, 1689/1997), 240. See also McMahon, “From the Happiness of Virtue to the Virtue of Happiness. ”
[36] See, e. g., Charles Taylor, The Ethics of Authenticity (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1991).
[37] The exact definition of happiness is a big debate within Western philosophy and psychology, with some associating happiness with life satisfaction, others with the abundance of positive emotions and feelings, and still others building more complex accounts of happiness as an individual responding favorably, in emotional terms, to one’s life. But for our present discussion, we don’t need to settle on an exact definition of happiness, as what I am going to say about it applies to all definitions of happiness that see it as some set of subjective feelings, emotions, or favorable responses to life. For discussion about the definition of happiness, see, e. g., Daniel M. Haybron, The Pursuit of Unhappiness: The Elusive Psychology of Weil‑ Being (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008).
[38] Luo Lu & Robin Gilmour, “Culture and Conceptions of Happiness: Individual Oriented and Social Oriented SWB, ” Journal of Happiness Studies 5, no. 3 (2004): 269–291.
[39] Эрик Вейнер – американский мыслитель и путешественник. Работал корреспондентом Национального общественного радио.
[40] Eric Weiner, The Geography of Bliss (New York: Hachette Book Group, 2008), 316–318.
[41] Weiner, Geography of Bliss, 318.
[42] Iris B. Mauss, Maya Tamir, Craig L. Anderson & Nicole S. Savino, “Can Seeking Happiness Make People Unhappy? Paradoxical Effects of Valuing Happiness, ” Emotion 11, no. 4 (2011): 807–815. See also Maya Tamir & Brett Q. Ford, “Should People Pursue Feelings That Feel Good or Feelings That Do Good? Emotional Preferences and Well‑ Being, ” Emotion 12, no. 5 (2012): 1061–1070.
[43] Iris B. Mauss, Nicole S. Savino, Craig L. Anderson, Max Weisbuch, Maya Tamir & Mark L. Laudenslager, “The Pursuit of Happiness Can Be Lonely, ” Emotion 12, no. 5 (2012): 908–912.
[44] For people having some degree of depressive symptoms, constant reporting of their happiness levels can be detrimental for their well‑ being. See Tamlin S. Conner & Katie A. Reid, “Effects of Intensive Mobile Happiness Reporting in Daily Life, ” Social Psychological and Personality Science 3, no. 3 (2012): 315–323.
[45] Many philosophers tend to see happiness and meaningfulness as two separate and fundamental values in human life. See Thaddeus Metz, Meaning in Life: An Analytic Study (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), chapter 4; and Susan Wolf, “Meaningfulness: A Third Dimension of the Good Life, ” Foundations of Science 21, no. 2 (2016): 253–269.
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[46] In philosopher Robert Nozick’s thought experiment about an experience machine providing all possible pleasures is the classic example of this. People are arguably not too eager to plug into such a machine. See Robert Nozick, Anarchy, State, and Utopia (Padstow: Blackwell, 1974), 42.
[47] Пер. Е. Цветковой.
[48] John F. Helliwell, Richard R. Layard & Jeffrey D. Sachs, eds. World Happiness Report 2019 (New York: Sustainable Development Solutions Network, 2019). See also previous World Happiness Reports.
[49] See Jakub Marian, “Number of Metal Bands per Capita in Europe, ” https: //jakubmarian. com/number‑ of‑ metal‑ bands‑ per‑ capita‑ in‑ europe/.
[50] Children of Bodom – финская англоязычная группа из города Эспоо, исполняющая музыку в стиле мелодик‑ дэт‑ метал с элементами различных других направлений метала.
[51] John F. Helliwell et al., World Happiness Report 2019.
[52] E. g., Max Haller & Markus Hadler, “How Social Relations and Structures Can Produce Happiness and Unhappiness: An International Comparative Analysis, ” Social Indicators Research 75, no. 2 (2006): 169–216; Ronald Inglehart, Robert Foa, Christopher Peterson & Christian Welzel, “Development, Freedom, and Rising Happiness: A Global Perspective (1981–2007), ” Perspectives on Psychological Science 3, no. 4 (2008): 264–285.
[53] Jon Clifton, “People Worldwide Are Reporting a Lot of Positive Emotions, ” May 21, 2014. http: //news. gallup. com/poll/169322/people‑ worldwide‑ reporting‑ lot‑ positive‑ emotions. aspx.
[54] World Health Organization, Global Health Estimates 2015: DALYs by Cause, Age, Sex, by Country and by Region, 2000–2015 (Geneva: World Health Organization, 2016).
[55] Compare, for example, these two: Dheeraj Rai, Pedro Zitko, Kelvyn Jones, John Lynch & Richard Araya, “Country and Individual Level Socioeconomic Determinants of Depression: Multilevel Cross‑ National Comparison, ” The British Journal of Psychiatry 202, no. 3 (2013): 195–203; and Alize J. Ferrari, Fiona J. Charlson, Rosana E. Norman, Scott B. Patten, Greg Freedman, Christopher J. L. Murray, et al., “Burden of Depressive Disorders by Country, Sex, Age, and Year: Findings from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010, ” PLOSMedicine 10, no. 11 (2013): 61001547.
[56] See Brett Q. Ford, Phoebe Lam, Oliver P. John & Iris B. Mauss, “The Psychological Health Benefits of Accepting Negative Emotions and Thoughts: Laboratory, Diary, and Longitudinal Evidence, ” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 115, no. 6 (2018): 1075–1092.
[57] The relationship is logarithmic rather than linear, but whether there is a satiation point for life satisfaction is still debated among researchers. Positive affect has generally weaker relations with wealth and there the satiation point is more readily observed. See Daniel Kahneman & Angus Deaton, “High Income Improves Evaluation of Life But Not Emotional Well‑ Being, ” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107, no. 38 (2010): 16489–16493; Eugenio Proto & Aldo Rustichini, “A Reassessment of the Relationship Between GDP and Life Satisfaction, ” FLOS ONE 8, no. 11 (2013): 679358; and Daniel W. Sacks, Betsy Ayer Stevenson & Justin Wolfers, “The New Stylized Facts About Income and Subjective Well Being, ” Emotion 12, no. 6 (2012): 1181–1187.
[58] Andrew T. Jebb, Louise Tay, Ed Diener & Shigehiro Oishi, “Happiness, Income Satiation and Turning Points Around the World, ” Nature Human Behaviour, no. 1 (2018): 33–38.
[59] Jonathan Haidt, Happiness Hypothesis: Finding Modern Truth in Ancient Wisdom (New York: Basic Books, 2006), 89.
[60] Консьюмеризм – здесь: культ потребления, потребительство.
[61] Chuck Palahniuk, Fight Club (London: Vintage Books, 2010), 149.
[62] Statista, “Media Advertising Spending in the United States from 2015 to 2022 (in billion U. S. dollars), ” March 28, 2019, https: //www. statista. com/statistics/272314/advertising‑ spending‑ in‑ the‑ us/.
[63] Секулярный – свободный от церковного влияния; светский.
[64] Здесь: особенность поведения, мысли.
[65] Barry Schwartz, The Paradox of Choice: Why More Is Less (New York: HarperCollins, 2004).
[66] Herbert A. Simon, “Rational Choice and the Structure of the Environment, ” Psychological Review 63, no. 2 (1956): 129–138. Simon contrasts the strategies of “satisfice” and “optimize. ”
[67] See Nathan N. Cheek & Barry Schwartz, “On the Meaning and Measurement of Maximization, ” Judgment and Decision Making 11, no. 2 (2016): 126–146.
[68] Samantha J. Heintzelman & Laura A. King, “Life Is Pretty Meaningful, ” American Psychologist 69, no. 6 (2014): 561–574.
[69] The Health and Retirement Study, an ongoing longitudinal study of Americans over age 50 sponsored by the National Institute on Aging at the University of Michigan, http: //hrsonline. isr. umich. edu/. These results are reported in Heintzelman & King, “Life Is Pretty Meaningful. ”
[70] Rosemarie Kobau, Joseph Sniezek, Matthew M. Zack, Richard E. Lucas & Adam Burns, “Well‑ Being Assessment: An Evaluation of Well‑ Being Scales for Public Health and Population Estimates of Well‑ Being Among US Adults, ” Applied Psychology: Health and Well‑ Being 2 (2010): 272–297.
[71] Oishi & Diener, “Residents of Poor Nations. ”
[72] Fei‑ Hsiu Hsiao, Guey‑ Mei Jow, Wen‑ Hung Kuo, King‑ Jen Chang, Yu‑ Fen Liu, Rainbow T. Ho, et al., “The Effects of Psychotherapy on Psychological Well‑ Being and Diurnal Cortisol Patterns in Breast Cancer Survivors, ” Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics 81 (2012): 173–182.
[73] Heintzelman & King, “Life Is Pretty Meaningful, ” 567.
[74] Sometimes people might be disillusioned and unreliable reporters of their own emotional states so we should take their reports with a grain of salt. But there is no evidence of bias so systematic that it would render subjective reports totally worthless, most of the time they probably are relatively accurate. See, e. g., OECD, OECD Guidelines on Measuring Subjective Well‑ Being (Paris: OECD Publishing, 2013). Be that as it may, I side with the psychologists in focusing on the experienced meaning of people rather than believing there to be some outside standard that can be used to judge the meaningfulness of people’s existence no matter their own experience.
[75] Пер. Е. Цветковой.
[76] Jon H. Kaas, “The Evolution of Brains from Early Mammals to Humans, ” Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Cognitive Science 4, no. 1 (2013): 33–45. Also see Joseph R. Burger, Menshian A. George, Claire Leadbetter & Farhin Shaikh, “The Allometry of Brain Size in Mammals, ” Journal of Mammalogy 100, no. 2 (2019): 276–283.
[77] Юваль Ной Харари – израильский военный историк‑ медиевист, профессор исторического факультета Еврейского университета в Иерусалиме, автор международного бестселлера «Sapiens: Краткая история человечества».
[78] Yuval Harari, Sapiens. A Brief History of Humankind (New York: Harper, 2015).
[79] See William A. Roberts, “Are Animals Stuck in Time? ” Psychological Bulletin 128, no. 3 (2002): 473–489. Although see also William A. Roberts, “Mental Time Travel: Animals Anticipate the Future, ” Current Biology 17, no. 11 (2007): R418–R420, where evidence is reviewed for the capability of some animals to anticipate the future and have episodic‑ like memories. As with most things separating humans from animals, instead of a clear dichotomy, humans just have much more of what some animals have little of.
[80] Antti Kauppinen, “Meaningfulness and Time, ” Philosophy and Phenomenological Research 84, no. 2 (2012): 345–377, 368.
[81] Нейровизуализация – общее название нескольких методов, позволяющих визуализировать структуру, функции и биохимические характеристики мозга. Включает компьютерную томографию, магниторезонансную томографию и т. п.
[82] Adam Waytz, Hal E. Hershfield & Diana I. Tamir, “Mental Simulation and Meaning in Life, ” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 108, no. 2 (2015): 336–355, study 1.
[83] Human sociality and living in large tribes most probably had much to do with why we developed the unique capacity for reflection as, e. g., Dunbar has argued. Also the need for justification most probably had much to do with the need to justify our actions to others as, e. g., Haidt has argued. See Robin I. M. Dunbar, “The Social Brain Hypothesis, ” Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews 6, no. 5 (1998): 178–190. And Jonathan Haidt, “The Emotional Dog and Its Rational Tail: A Social Intuitionist Approach to Moral Judgment, ” Psychological Review 108 (2001): 814–834.
[84] See Frank Martela & Michael F. Steger, “The Meaning of Meaning in Life: Coherence, Purpose, and Significance as the Three Facets of Meaning, ” Journal of Positive Psychology, 11, no. 5 (2016): 531–545.
[85] Erich Fromm, Escape from Freedom (New York: Avon Books, 1965), p. viii. The first edition of the book was published in 1941.
[86] Fromm, Escape from Freedom, xii.
[87] Пер. А. В. Александрова.
[88] Michael F. Steger, Yoshito Kawabata, Satoshi Shimai & Keiko Otake, “The Meaningful Life in Japan and the United States: Levels and Correlates of Meaning in Life, ” Journal of Research in Personality 42, no. 3 (2008), 660–678.
[89] Charles Taylor, A Secular Age (Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2007). The description of the worldview of people living in the 1500s is mainly based on chapter 1 of Taylor’s book.
[90] Taylor, A Secular Age, 42, based on Stephen Wilson, The Magical Universe (London: Hambledon & London, 2004).
[91] Max Weber, The Sociology of Religion (Boston: Beacon Press, 1971).
[92] There is, of course, a big leap in worldviews between belief in local spirits and one omnipotent creator God, but we have no space to go through the so‑ called axial revolution and how that transformed our worldviews.
[93] Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, trans. Robert C. Bartlett & Susan D. Collins (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 2012).
[94] Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, no6a: i7–24.
[95] Telos (греч. конец, цель) – в древнегреческой философии конечная цель чего‑ либо; один из четырех основных принципов бытия в философии Аристотеля.
[96] Summum bonum (лат. высшее благо) – Цицерон в своей работе «О высшем благе и высшем зле» писал: «Мы ищем, что является предельным и последним из благ. По мнению всех философов, оно должно быть таким, чтобы все измерялось им, а само оно – ничем вне его».
[97] Note that Hochschild argues that this question was asked up to the twentieth century, while here I am arguing that meaning of life started to replace it in the nineteenth century. Joshua P. Hochschild, “What ‘the Meaning of Life’ Replaced, ” https: //thevirtuebl0g. c0m/2017/12/18/what‑ the‑ meaning‑ of‑ life‑ replaced/.
[98] Пер. Е. Цветковой.
[99] Название переводится с латыни как «Перекроенный портной».
[100] Ральф Уолдо Эмерсон – американский эссеист, поэт, философ, пастор, лектор, общественный деятель.
[101] Герман Мельвилль – классик американской литературы, писатель‑ романтик, поэт и моряк, автор классического романа «Моби Дик».
[102] Уолт Уитмен – американский поэт и публицист, реформатор американской поэзии.
[103] See the introduction by Kerry McSweeney and Peter Sabor in Carlyle, Sartor Resartus.
[104] The philosopher Wendell O’Brien argues that Carlyle’s book is the earliest known piece of literature where the phrase “meaning of life” occurs. Oxford English Dictionary similarly gives Carlyle’s book as the earliest example of the phrase. My own searches and consultations with a few specialists have not been able to find any previous occasion when somebody would have used the phrase “meaning of life. ” I would love to be proven wrong, but at this point I propose that the phrase was probably coined in English by Thomas Carlyle in 1833–1834, inspired by German romantics using the phrase “der Sinn des Lebens” a few decades earlier. See Wendell O’Brien, “The Meaning of Life: Early Continental and Analytic Perspectives, ” in Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2014). Retrieved from http: //www. iep. utm. edu/mean‑ ear/.
[105] Thomas Carlyle, Sartor Resartus (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987), 3.
[106] Пер. Н. Горбова.
[107] Carlyle, Sartor Resartus. The quotes in this paragraph are from pages 87, 89, 127, 140, 149.
[108] Пер. Н. Горбова.
[109] Пер. Е. Цветковой.
[110] Пер. Е. Цветковой.
[111] Carlyle, Sartor Resartus, 211.
[112] Пойоменон (от др. ‑ греч. : π ο ι ο ύ μ ε ν ο ν – «создание») – термин, придуманный исследователем Алистером Фаулером для особого типа метапрозы, в которой речь идет о процессе творчества, о создании книги. По Фаулеру «пойоменон даёт возможность изучать границы вымысла и реальности – пределы повествовательной правды».
[113] Soren Kierkegaard, Either/Or, trans. Howard V. Hong & Edna H. Hong (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987), 31.
[114] Сэмюэл Беккет – французский и ирландский писатель, поэт и драматург. Представитель модернизма в литературе.
[115] Джордж Элиот – английская писательница.
[116] Рихард Вагнер – немецкий композитор, дирижёр и теоретик искусства.
[117] Томас Хаксли – английский естествоиспытатель, ближайший соратник Ч. Дарвина и популяризатор его учения.
[118] Arthur Schopenhauer, On Human Nature, trans. Thomas Bailey Saunders (New York: Cosimo, 2010), 62. The phrase “Sinn des Lebens” appears also at least once in Schopenhauer’s magnum opus Die Welt ah Wille und Vorstellung.
[119] Пер. Е. Цветковой.
[120] Leo Tolstoy, Tolstoy’s Diaries, Volume 1184–1894, ed. R. F. Christian (London: The Athlone Press, 1985), 191.
[121] Tolstoy, Confession, 33–34. Note that this particular phrasing is from the translation by Louise and Aylmer Maude used by Antony Flew, “Tolstoi and the Meaning of Life, ” Ethics 73, no. 2 (1963), 110–118.
[122] Tolstoy, My Confession, in The Meaning of Life, 2nd ed., ed. E. D. Klemke, trans. Leo Wierner, 11–20. (New York: Oxford University Press, 200), 15.
[123] Jaakko Tahkokallio, Pimea aika (Helsinki: Gaudeamus, 2019).
[124] In Kepler’s “Letter to Mastlin” in 1595. Quoted in James R. Voelkel, The Composition of Kepler’s Astronomia Nova (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001), 33.
[125] This, and other facts about the history of atheism in this paragraph, come from Gavin Hyman, A Short History of Atheism (New York: I. B. Tauris & Co., 2010), 3–7. He notes that among the ancient Greek and Roman thinkers we can sometimes find what he calls “soft” atheism. It was a form of freethinking, where some exceptional individuals proposed intellectual theories that saw the God’s role in new ways or even denied much role for them. But these thinkers were few, typically did not reject religious practice, and didn’t involve a resolute denial of a transcendent realm altogether.
[126] Hyman, A Short History of Atheism, 7.
[127] Tolstoy, My Confession, in The Meaning of Life, 19.
[128] Alain de Botton, “How Romanticism Ruined Love, ” July 19, 2016, https: //www. abc. net. au/religion/how‑ romanticism‑ ruined‑ love/10096750.
[129] Hyman, A Short History of Athe ism, analyzes on pages 20–26 the transition taking place in the Descartes book.
[130] See, e. g., Maclntyre, After Virtue.
[131] Baumeister, “How the Self Became a Problem. ”
[132] Hyman, A Short History of Atheism, xvi‑ xvii, notes that the world as something to be mastered and controlled and a sense of progress are key defining features of the modern worldview.
[133] Furthermore, the peculiar European political situation was favorable for new ways of thinking. In the centrally governed China, the emperor had the power to set the limits of what one could think aloud. The European elite was culturally united and thus constantly exchanging thoughts, but politically Europe was divided into small city‑ states and kingdoms. This meant that for a freethinker pushing the boundaries of what one could think, there was always some prince or ruler somewhere who was more liberal and tolerant and to whose principality one could flee if things started to get too heated in one’s present location. I feel that we should not underestimate this historically peculiar condition‑ cultural unity within decentralized politics in enabling the rapid development of several innovations in thinking in fields ranging from philosophy to astronomy to politics.
[134] Перевод Е. Цветковой.
[135] Of the unaffiliated, roughly one third self‑ identify as atheists or agnostics (31 %), roughly one third say that religion is unimportant to their lives (39 %), while one‑ third (30 %) sees religion at least somewhat important in their lives but don’t identify with any particular religion. While people in this latter group might still believe in some kind of God or spirituality, their way of believing is thus not connected to any particular religious group, but rather they believe or don’t believe in their own way. See Pew Research Center, America’s Changing Religious Landscape.
[136] Pew Research Report, 2015. Pew Research Center, America’s Changing Religious Landscape.
[137] The statistic about not believing in God comes from the International Social Survey Programme (ISSP) 2008, quoted in Ariela Keysar, & Juhem Navarro‑ Rivera, “A World of Atheism, ” in The Oxford Handbook of Atheism, ed. S. Bullivant & M. Ruse, 553–585, (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013). The amount of religiously unaffiliated is from Pew Research Center, The Future of World Religions: Population Growth Projections, 2010–2050, Pew Research Report, 2015. As regards the religiously unaffiliated, China, Hong Kong, and North Korea have along with Czech Republic and Estonia more than half of their populations reporting as religiously unaffiliated in the Pew Research Center 2015 data.
[138] Based on the percentage of people who outrightly believe there is no God compared to people who believe in God without doubts in ISSP 2008 survey. See Figure 36. 8 in Keysar & Navarro‑ Rivera, “A World of Atheism, ” 577.
[139] Robert D. Putnam & David E. Campbell, American Grace: How Religion Divides and Unites Us (New York: Simon & Schuster), 4.
[140] Taylor, A Secular Age.
[141] Putnam & Campbell, American Grace, 6.
[142] Carlyle, Sartor Resartus, 147.
[143] This is how psychologists define meaning in life. Note that for philosophers, even the question of “meaning in life” typically refers to the objective meaningfulness of a particular life whether that life is “really” meaningful rather than to the person’s subjective sense of meaningfulness.
[144] Note that many analytic philosophers are nowadays still objective naturalists, believing that some form of objectivism can be saved even if we accept naturalism. See, e. g. Metz, Meaning in Life., and Antti Kauppinen, “Meaningfulness, ” in The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Weil‑ Being, ed. G. Fletcher, 281–291 (Abingdon, UK: Routledge, 2016). Unfortunately, here is not the time or space to discuss the merits and shortcomings of these attempts.
[145] This sentiment is very much at the heart of Deweyan pragmatist philosophy. See especially Gregory Pappas John Dewey’s Ethics: Democracy as Experience (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2008).
[146] See, e. g., the essays “Pyrrhus and Cineas” and “Introduction to an Ethics of Ambiguity” in Simone de Beauvoir, Philosophical Writings, ed. M. A. Simons (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2004).
[147] Beauvoir in the essay “Introduc tion to an Ethics of Ambiguity, ” trans, by Marybeth Timmermann.
[148] Beauvoir, Philosophical Writings, 291. ni Beauvoir, Philosophical Writings, 293.
[149] I talk about this idea of moral growth and its roots in pragmatism especially in Frank Martela, “Is Moral Growth Possible for Managers? ” in Handbook of Philosophy of Management, ed. Cristina Neesham & Steven Segal. Advance online publication, doiao. 1007/978‑ 3‑ 319‑ 48352‑ 8‑ i8‑ i.
[150] Реверберирующая камера – специальная комната для звукозаписи со звукоизоляцией.
[151] Frankl, Man’s Search for Mean ing, p. 112. Note that this quote is from the 2006 Beacon Press edition of the book.
[152] Pappas, John Dewey’s Ethics, 152.
[153] Джон Дьюи – американский философ и педагог‑ реформатор, представитель философского направления прагматизм, считающего практику критерием истины и смысловой значимости.
[154] John Dewey, Human Nature and Conduct (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1922), 196.
[155] Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, 1096, 3–4.
[156] Samuel Beckett, Waitingfor Godot (New York: Grove Press, 1954), 80.
[157] Пер. Д. Мороз, О. Тархановой, А. И. Наумова.
[158] Бальтасар Грациан‑ и‑ Моралес – испанский прозаик, философ и теоретик литературы, иезуит.
[159] Гуннар Мюрдаль – шведский экономист, лауреат Нобелевской премии по экономике 1974 года.
[160] Tim Urban, “The Tail End, ” Wait But Why, December 11, 2015, https: //waitbutwhy. c0m/2015/12/the‑ tail‑ end. html.
[161] «Феррис Бьюллер берет выходной» (англ. Ferris Bueller’s Day Off) – американский комедийный фильм режиссёра и сценариста Джона Хьюза.
[162] Ferris Bueller’s Day Off, Broderick, Matthew. Directed by John Hughes. Los Angeles: Paramount Pictures, 1986.
[163] «Пэкерс» – Грин‑ Бей Пэкерс (англ. Green Bay Packers, «Упаковщики») – профессиональный клуб по американскому футболу из города Грин‑ Бей, штат Висконсин. Команда была основана в 1919 году.
[164] This distinction between idiosyn cratic sources of meaning and universal sources of meaning resembles Calhoun’s distinction between reasons‑ for‑ anyone and reasons‑ for‑ me. See Cheshire Calhoun, Doing Valuable Time: The Present, the Future, and Meaningful Living (New York: Oxford University Press, 2018).
[165] Перевод Е. Цветковой.
[166] John Dewey, Theory of Valuation (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1939).
[167] I develop this theme more in my article Frank Martela, “Moral Philosophers as Ethical Engineers: Limits of Moral Philosophy and a Pragmatist Alternative, ” Metaphilosophy 48, no. 1–2 (2017): 58–78.
[168] Edward L. Deci & Richard M. Ryan, “The ‘What’ and ‘Why’ of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self‑ Determination of Behavior, ” Psychological Inquiry 11, no. 4 (2000), 227–268; Richard M. Ryan & Edward L. Deci, Self‑ Determination Theory: Basic Psychological Needs in Motivation, Development, and Wellness (New York: Guilford Press, 2017). See also my brief introduction to self‑ determination theory in Frank Martela, “Self‑ Determination Theory, ” in The Wiley‑ Blackvoell Encyclopedia of Personality and Individual Differences: Vol I. Models and Theories, ed. Bernardo J. Carducci & C. S. Nave (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, in press).
[169] Deci & Ryan, “The ‘What’ and ‘Why’ of Goal Pursuits, ” 229.
[170] Перевод Е. Цветковой.
[171] Deci & Ryan “The ‘What’ and ‘Why’ of Goal Pursuits”; Ryan & Deci, Self Determination Theory.
[172] Frank Martela & Richard M. Ryan, “The Benefits of Benevolence: Basic Psychological Needs, Beneficence, and the Enhancement of Weil‑ Being, ” Journal of Personality 84, no. 6 (2016), 750–764.
[173] In particular, while the frustration of the benevolence doesn’t seem to lead to ill‑ being in the same sense as the frustration of the three established needs does, the satisfaction of the need for benevolence seems to lead to well‑ being and meaningfulness similarly to the three established needs. Instead of a basic psychological need, perhaps it is a kind of enhancement need. See Martela & Ryan 2019: “Distinguishing Between Basic Psychological Needs And Basic Wellness Enhancers: The Case of Beneficence as a Candidate Psychological Need. ” Motivation and Emotion, advance online publication. 10. 1007/511031‑ 019‑ 09800.
[174] See especially Frank Martela, Richard M. Ryan & Michael F. Steger, “Meaningfulness as Satisfaction of Autonomy, Competence, Relatedness, and Beneficence: Comparing the Four Satisfactions and Positive Affect as Predictors of Meaning in Life, ” Journal of Happiness Studies 19, no. 5 (2018), 1261–1282. The article also provides key references to the most important studies that I’ve seen that have examined these four as sources of meaning. See also Frank Martela & Tapani J. J. Riekki, “Autonomy, Competence, Relatedness, and Beneficence: A Multicultural Comparison of the Four Pathways to Meaningful Work, ” Frontiers in Psychology 9 (2018), 1–14.
[175] A more philosophical treatment of this suggestion of building core values upon basic needs can be found in my article F. Martela, “Four reasonable, Self‑ Justifying Values – How to Identify Empirically Universal Values Compatible with Pragmatist Subjectivism, ” Acta Philosophica Fennica, 94 (2018), 101–128.
[176] Israeli Professor Shalom Schwartz has probably done the most comprehensive work on human values around the world, with numerous studies from the 1990s to today involving people from more than a hundred different countries. Autonomy, competence, relatedness, and benevolence find somewhat corresponding values in his list of universal values shared by all cultures: self‑ direction, achievement, and caring‑ benevolence, and he readily acknowledges that the “values associated with autonomy, relatedness, and competence show a universal pattern of high importance and high consensus. ” Ronald Fischer & Shalom Schwartz, “Whence Differences in Value Priorities? Individual, Cultural, or Artifactual Sources, ” Journal of Cross‑ Cultural Psychology, 42, no. 7 (2011), 1127–1144. There is a degree of dissimilarity between Schwartz’s definition of the relevant values and the basic needs, which has to be taken into account when comparing his values and SDT’s needs. But I still feel that there is enough conceptual similarity to make the conclusion that Schwartz himself makes: That the needs most probably have almost universal appeal. Schwartz notes that benevolence could be divided into two subtypes: dependability which refers to relations with friends and being responsible in them, and caring, which is more about being helpful. See Shalom Schwartz, Jan Cieciuch, Michele Vecchione, Eldad Davidov, Ronald Fischer, Constanze Beierlein et al., “Refining the Theory of Basic Individual Values, ” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 103, no. 4 (2012), 663–688.
[177] Christopher P. Niemiec, Richard M. Ryan & Edward L. Deci, “The Path Taken: Consequences of Attaining Intrinsic and Extrinsic Aspirations in Post‑ College Life, ” Journal of Research in Personality 43, no. 3 (2009), 291–306.
[178] Kauppinen, “Meaningfulness and Time, ” 364.
[179] Roy Baumeister & Mark Leary, “The Need to Belong: Desire for Interpersonal Attachments as a Fundamental Human Motivation, ” Psychological Bulletin, 117, no. 3 (1995). 497–529.
[180] Arthur Aron, Elaine N. Aron, Michael Tudor & Greg Nelson, “Close Relationships as Including Other in the Self, ” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 60, no. 2 (1991), 241–253.
[181] Yawei Cheng, Chenyi Chen, Ching Po Lin, Kun Hsien Chou, & Jean Decety, “Love Hurts: An fMRI Study, ” Neuroimage 51, no. 2 (2010), 923–929.
[182] Maurice Merleau‑ Ponty, Phenomenology of Perception, trans. C. Smith (London: Routledge, 2002 [1945]).
[183] Поведенческая экономика – направление экономических исследований, которое изучает влияние социальных, когнитивных и эмоциональных факторов на экономическое поведение, принятие экономических решений отдельными лицами и учреждениями и последствия этого влияния на рыночные переменные (цены, прибыль, распределение ресурсов).
[184] Nathaniel Lambert, Tyler F. Stillman, Roy F. Baumeister, Frank D. Fincham, Joshua A. Hicks & Steven M. Graham, “Family as a Salient Source of Meaning in Young Adulthood, ” The Journal of Positive Psychology 5, no. 5 (2010), 367–376.
[185] Исследовательский центр Пью (англ. Pew Research Center) находится в Вашингтоне. Предоставляет информацию о социальных проблемах, общественном мнении и демографических тенденциях, формирующихся в США и мире. Также проводит опросы общественного мнения, демографические исследования, контент‑ анализ, другие социальные исследования.
[186] Pew Research Center, “Where Americans Find Meaning in Life, ” November 20, 2018, https: //www. pewforum. org/2018/11/20/where‑ americans‑ find‑ meaning‑ in‑ life/.
[187] Lambert et al., “Family as a Salient Source of Meaning”; Nathaniel M. Lambert, Tyler F. Stillman, Joshua A. Hicks, Shanmukh Kamble, Roy F. Baumeister & Frank D. Fincham, “To Belong Is to Matter: Sense of Belonging Enhances Meaning in Life, ” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 39, no. 11 (2013): 1418–1427; Martela et al., “Meaningfulness as Satisfaction of Autonomy, Competence, Relatedness, and Beneficence. ”
[188] Тайлер Стиллман – профессор менеджмента и маркетинга университет штата Юта, США. Специализация: социальная психология, предпринимательство, принятие решения, психология покупателя.
[189] Lambert et al., “Family as a Salient Source of Meaning”; Nathaniel M. Lambert, Tyler F. Stillman, Joshua A. Hicks, Shanmukh Kamble, Roy F. Baumeister & Frank D. Fincham, “To Belong Is to Matter: Sense of Belonging Enhances Meaning in Life, ” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 39, no. 11 (2013): 1418–1427; Martela et al., “Meaningfulness as Satisfaction of Autonomy, Competence, Relatedness, and Beneficence. ”
[190] Перевод Е. Цветковой.
[191] В своем бестселлере «Затворничество: падение и взлет американского общества» (Bowling Alone) американский политолог, профессор Гарвардского университета Роберт Патнэм указывает, что в последние несколько десятилетий уровень социализации заметно сокращается. Посещение клубных встреч сократилось на 58 %, время семейных ужинов – на 43 %, количество приглашений друзей – на 35 %.
[192] Robert D. Putnam, Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001). For a critique, see, e. g., Claude S. Fischer, “Bowling Alone: What’s the Score? ” Social Networks 27, no. 2 (2001), 155–167.
[193] Juri Allik & Anu Realo, “Individualism‑ Collectivism and Social Capital, ” Journal of Cross‑ Cultural Psychology 35, no. 1 (2004): 29–49, 34–35.
[194] I heard the story for first time from Hintsa’s friend and colleague Juha Akras. It is also told in Aki Hintsa & Oskari Saari’s book, The Core: Better Life, Better Performance, trans. D. Robinson (Helsinki: WSOY, 2015), 196–198.
[195] Leena Valkonen, “What Is a Good Father or Good Mother Like? Fifth and Sixth Graders’ Conceptions of Parenthood / Millainen on Hyva Aiti Tai Isa? Viides Ja Kuudesluokkalaisten Lasten Vanhemmuuskasityk‑ set, ” (Jyvaskyla: University of Jyvaskyla, 2006), 42. Also quoted in Hintsa & Saari, The Core.
[196] Frank Martela, “Meaningfulness as Contribution, ” The Southern Journal of Philosophy 55, no. 2 (2017): 232–256.
[197] Frank Martela & Richard M. Ryan, “Prosocial Behavior Increases Well‑ Being and Vitality Even Without Contact with the Beneficiary: Causal and Behavioral Evidence, ” Motivation and Emotion 40, no. 3 (2016), 351–357.
[198] See, e. g., Blake A. Allan, Ryan D. Duffy & Brian Collisson, “Helping Others Increases Meaningful Work: Evidence from Three Experiments, ” Journal of Counseling Psychology 65, no. 2 (2017), 155–165. Daryl R. Van Tongeren, Jeffrey D. Green, Don E. Davis, Joshua N. Hook & Timothy L. Hulsey, “Prosociality Enhances Meaning in Life, ” The Journal of Positive Psychology 11, no. 3 (2016), 225–236.
[199] Перевод Е. Цветковой.
[200] This section is based on a blog post I wrote that was originally published by Scientific American Observations entitled “Exercise, Eat Well, Help Others: Altruism’s Surprisingly Strong Help Impact” (September 7, 2018), https: //blogs. scientificamerican. com/observations/exercise‑ eat‑ well‑ help‑ others‑ altruisms‑ surprisingly‑ strong‑ health‑ impact/.
[201] Ashley V. Whillans, Elizabeth W. Dunn, Gillian M. Sandstrom, Sally S. Dickerson & Kenneth M. Madden, “Is Spending Money on Others Good for Your Heart? ” Health Psychology 35, no. 6 (2016), 574–583.
[202] Систолическое давление (первая и более высокая цифра) – это давление крови, регистрируемое в камерах сердца и в артериях при сокращении сердечной мышцы (систолы). Диастолическое давление (вторая, нижняя цифра) – это давление крови, регистрируемое в камерах сердца и в артериях при расслаблении сердечной мышцы (диастолы).
[203] Stephanie L. Brown, Randolph M. Nesse, Amiram D. Vinokur & Dylan M. Smith, “Providing Social Support May Be More Beneficial Than Receiving It: Results from a Prospective Study of Mortality, ” Psychological Science 14, no. 4 (2003), 320–327.
[204] Morris A. Okun, Ellen Wan Yeung & Stephanie L. Brown, “Volunteering by Older Adults and Risk of Mortality: A Meta‑ Analysis, ” Psychology and Aging 28, no. 2 (2013), 564–577.
[205] Michael J. Poulin, Stephanie L. Brown, Amanda J. Dillard & Dylan M. Smith, “Giving to Others and the Association Between Stress and Mortality, ” American Journal of Public Health 103, no. 9 (2013), 1649–1655.
[206] Stephanie L. Brown, Dylan M. Smith, Richard Schulz, Mohammed U. Kabeto, Peter A. Ubel, Michael Poulin, et al., “Caregiving Behavior Is Associated with Decreased Mortality Risk, ” Psychological Science 20, no. 4 (2009), 488–494.
[207] Elizabeth W. Dunn, Lara B. Aknin & Michael I. Norton, “Spending Money on Others Promotes Happiness, ” Science 319, no. 5870 (2008), 1687–1688.
[208] Lara B. Aknin, Christopher P. Barrington‑ Leigh, Elizabeth W. Dunn, John F. Helliwell, Justine Burns, Robert Biswas‑ Diener, et al., “Prosocial Spending and Well‑ Being: Cross‑ Cultural Evidence for a Psychological Universal, ” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 104, no. 4 (2013), 635–652.
[209] Lara B. Aknin, Tanya Broesch, J. Kiley Hamlin & Julia W. Van de Vondervoort, “Prosocial Behavior Leads to Happiness in a Small‑ Scale Rural Society, ” Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 144, no. 4 (2015), 788–795.
[210] Jorge Moll, Frank Krueger, Roland Zahn, Matteo Pardini, Ricardo de Oliveira‑ Souza & Jordan Grafman, “Human Fronto‑ Mesolimbic Networks Guide Decisions About Charitable Donation, ” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 103, no. 42 (2006), 15623–15628.
[211] Перевод Е. Цветковой.
[212] Amy Wrzesniewski & Jane E. Dutton, “Crafting a Job: Revisioning Employees as Active Crafters of Their Work, ” The Academy of Management Review 26, no. 2 (2001), 179–201, 191.
[213] Adam Grant, “8 Ways to Say No Without Ruining Your Reputation, ” Huffington Post, March 12, 2014. https: //www. huffpost. com/entry/8‑ ways‑ to‑ say‑ no‑ without_b_4945289.
[214] Netta Weinstein & Richard M. Ryan, “When Helping Helps: Autonomous Motivation for Prosocial Behavior and Its Influence on Well‑ Being for the Helper and Recipient, ” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 98, no. 2 (2010): 222–244.
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[218] Letter from T
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