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Dysfunction of carbohydrate metabolism regulations
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For the unremitting of the process of glycolysis and Crab’s cycle glucose should be delivered continuously to the tissues. It happens because of a constant level of glucose (3.3-5.5mmol/lit) in the blood, which in physiological conditions never decreases to a critical level. Glucose level in the blood can be identified by the speed of endogenic glucose production and by the speed of glucose utilization. Several types of regulation of carbohydrate metabolism can be distinguished: substrate, nervous, hormonal and renal.
Disturbances of any stage of carbohydrate metabolism or of regulating mechanism cause dysfunction of carbohydrate metabolism and it appears with the change of glucose concentration in blood (hypo- or hyperglycemia).
Hypoglycemia occurs when the concentration of glucose in blood is less than 3.3 mmol/lit. It requires an immediate treatment, because hypoglycemia causes irreversible changes of the nervous cells, first it disturbs the function of cortical layer of the brain then in the midbrain (cereal hypoglycemia).
Hyperglycemia occurs when the concentration of glucose in blood is more than 5.5mmol/lit.
It can be divided into: physiological hyperglycemia (it has an accommodative function as provides easy utilizing energy material by tissue), alimentary hyperglycemia (occurs after eating of big amount of carbohydrate), emotional hyperglycemia (develops due to stress, emotional excitement, sever pains), hormonal hyperglycemia (is caused by the dysfunction of endocrine glands).
Ex.1. Прочитайте текст. Найдите в тексте информацию о:
1. the reason of Crab’s cycle;
2. identification of glucose in the blood;
3. types of metabolism regulation;
4. the reason of hypoglycemia occurrence;
5. division of hyperglycemia and its reason.
Ex.2. Выразите смысл каждого абзаца одним или двумя предложениями.
Ex.3. Ответьте на следующие вопросы:
1.Why should glucose be delivered to the tissues continuously?
2. How can glucose level in the blood be identified?
3. What types of carbohydrate metabolism can be distinguished?
4. When does hyperglycemia occur?
5. Why does hyperglycemia require an immediate treatment?
Ex. 4. Сделайте краткий пересказ, выбрав из текста ключевую информацию.
Text 3
All substances are poisons; there is
none which is not a poison. The right
dose differentiates a poison and a
remedy.
Paracelsus
One could define a poison as any agent that is capable of producing a deleterious response in a biological system or capable of destroying life or seriously injuring function.
The origins of toxic substances are many, varied and subject to several kinds of classification. At its simplest one can recognize those agents that arise from natural sources and those that are artificial or synthetic. Naturally occurring substances may be categorized with respect to their origin from animal, plant or mineral sources. Venoms and toxins in structured organs of the snake and marine animals represent one kind of well-known animal source of toxic substances. Terodotoxin and other toxic substances found in fish, derive from other marine organisms that are components of the diet of the fish.
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Among the higher plants there are numerous species that contain toxic agents. Many of the better-known and best-characterized substances are those that have been adopted or developed for medicinal use. A few prominent examples are opium and morphine, atropine, cardiac glycosides, salicylate, quinine, physostigmine, scopolamine, reserpine, cocaine, picrotoxin and curare.
Lower plants are also a source of many toxic agents. We make use of a selective toxicity of some of these substances as antibiotic agents in medicine. But many organisms produce toxins that represent hazards to health. For example, bacterial endotoxins of Salmonella and Botulinus are well known poisons.
Marine organisms such as Gymodmium brevae have resulted in major ecologic disasters; similar effects have been noted with some of the blue-green algae.
Most often chemical classification at several levels is used. Thus we might list solvents, metals, plastics and many similar groups.
Other classifications are based on the organs or systems that are the “target” site for the effects of the chemical (for example, hepatotoxic). Whatever classification is selected, it is not fully.
After the toxicant enters the plasma, either by absorption or by direct intravenous administration, it is available for distribution throughout the body. Its distribution is largely dependent on its ability to pass cell membranes and on its affinity for various body components. Some toxicants accumulate in various parts of the body.
Toxicants are often concentrated in a specific tissue. Some toxicants achieve their highest concentration at their site of toxic action, such as carbon monoxide, which has a very high affinity for hemoglobin.
The liver and the kidney have a high capacity to bind chemicals, and these two organs probably concentrate more toxicants than any other organs. This might be related to the fact that these two organs are very important in the elimination of toxicants from the body; the kidney and the liver have a capacity to excrete many chemicals and the liver has a high capacity to metabolize them.
As an example of the rapidity with which liver binds foreign compounds, 30 minutes after a single administration of lead, the concentration is 50 times higher than in the plasma.
Lipid solubility is an important factor for the absorption of toxicants; so it is not surprising that they distribute into body fat. The highest concentration of DDT is found in fat.
Bone can also serve as a reservoir for compounds such as lead and tetracyclines. Approximately 90% of the lead in the body is found in the skeleton. The toxic material deposited in bone is not toxic as such, but it can be released again into the general circulation.
Ex.1. Прочитайте и переведите текст, используя следующие слова:
Agent - агент, вещество
deleterious response - разрушительная реакция
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subject -объект
artificial - искусственный
to be categorized - быть распределенным
with respect to - относительно
venom - яд животного происхождения
snake - змея
marine - морской
hazard -губительное действие
algae -водоросль
solvent -растворитель
target -мишень
lead -свинец
Ex.2. Найдите в текст информацию о:
a) origins of toxic substances;
b) poisons found in the higher and lower plants;
c) other classifications of the poisonous chemicals;
d) the role of liver and kidneys in the elemination of toxins;
e) the role of lipids and bones in the purification of the body.
Ex.3. Согласитесь или отрицайте информацию. Дайте обоснование своего ответа, пользуясь фразами:
I don’t think so, because… Yes, I agree that …
- One could define a poison as any agent that is capable of destroying life or seriously injuring function.
- The origins of toxic substances are not many.
- Some agents arise from natural sources, others are artificial or synthetic.
- Venoms and toxins in structural organs of the snake and marine animals do not represent one kind of well-known animal source of toxic substances.
- Among the higher plants not numerous species contain toxic agents.
- Lower plants are also a source of many toxic agents.
- Solvents, metals, plastics and many similar groups are not subjected to chemical classification.
- After the toxicant enters the plasma, it is available for distribution throughout the body.
- Toxicants are not concentrated in a specific tissue.
- Some toxicants do not achieve their highest concentration at their site of toxic action.
- The liver and the kidney have a high capacity to bind chemicals, and these two organs concentrate more toxicants than any other organs.
- Lipid solubility is an important factor for the absorption of toxicants.
- Bone cannot serve as a reservoir for compounds such as lead and tetracyclines.
- The toxic material deposited in bone is not toxic as such. It cannot be released again into the general circulation.
Ex.4. Расскажите о:
a) classification of the poisonous substances (venoms, toxins, chemicals);
b) sources of toxins (animals, snakes, fish, plants, artificial sources);
c) ways of the toxicants penetration into the body;
d) tissues where toxicants concentrate and deteriorations caused by them.
Unit 6
Drug annotation
Grammar: Revision of Tenses and Voices
Ex.1. Прочитайте слова Vocabulary List вслух, изучите:
Composition / Description - название препарата, его химический
состав
Properties - свойства
Indications - показания к применению
Contraindications - противопоказания по применению
Precautions / Warnings - меры предосторожности
Side effects / Adverse reactions - побочные действия
Interactions - взаимодействие с другими
препаратами
Dosage / Administration - дозировка / способ назначения
Storage - хранение препарата
Supply - форма поставки
Microbiology - микробиология
Biological studies - биологические исследования
Animal pharmacology - действие на животных
Human pharmacology - действие на человека
Clinical studies - клинические исследования
Gastrointestinal - желудочно - кишечные
Hemopoetic - кроветворные
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Hypersensivity reactions - реакции на повышенную
чувствительность к препарату
Skin and mucous membranes - действие на кожный покров и
слизистые оболочки
Liver - действие на печень
Cardiovascular - действие на сердечно-сосудистую
систему
Local reactions - местные реакции
a) назовите термины, называющие разделы аннотации;
b) назовите слова, относящиеся к действию лекарств на системы и органы.
Drug annotation
Drug annotation is an instruction paper of a drug (a drug instruction paper). There may be less or more detailed annotations. The following sections are typical for every annotation:
Composition, description, properties, indications, contraindications, precautions / warnings, side-effects, adverse reactions, interactions, dosage and administration, storage, supply.
Some of the annotations have additional sections: Ex: PHARMACOKINETICS, ACTIONS and others.
The section ACTIONS is subdivided into:
Microbiology, biological studies, animal pharmacology, human pharmacology, clinical studies.
The section SIDE-EFFECTS or ADVERSE REACTIONS is subdivided into:
Gastrointestinal, hemopoetic, hypersensitive reactions, skin and mucous membranes, liver. Cardiovascular, local reactions.
The section DOSAGE and ADMINISTRATION has additional indications for adults and children regarding their age.
Some annotations contain drawings to illustrate the ways of administration (dropping, spray or injections) with the help of instruments, such as syringes, spray devices and so on.
Some additional information is given in thick or coloured type or in italics.
Special information about the drug storage and expiratory date is given in frames.
Ex.2. Прочитайте и переведите текст «Drug Annotation».
Ex. 3. Назовите термины, обозначающие побочные действия и нежелательные реакции.
Ex. 4. Прочитайте и переведите слова, входящие в раздел «Actions».
Ex. 5. Закончите предложения, заменив русские слова в скобках их английским эквивалентами:
- Drug annotation is (информационный документ) of a drug.
- For every annotation the following (разделы) are typical: (состав, показания, противопоказания, побочные действия, взаимодействия с другими препаратами).
- (Некоторые аннотации) have additional sections: (фармакокинетика, действия) and others.
- The section (дозировка и способы применения) has additional indications for adults and children.
- Some annotations contain (рисунки) illustrating administration of a drug.
Ex. 6. Закончите предложения, используя подходящие по смыслу слова, приведенные ниже:
- Some additional information is given in … or coloured … or in italics.
- Special … about the drug storage and … is given in frames.
- Microbiology, biological studies, animal pharmacology, human pharmacology, clinical studies are described in the section ….
- Such instruments as syringes, … … and others are given in pictures.
- Such sections as … … and … … are very informative and important for patients.
Actions, warnings, types, information, spray devices, side effects, adverse reactions, expiry date.
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Ex. 7. Найдите в тексте «Drug Annotation» английские эквиваленты следующих слов и словосочетаний. Составьте предложения с ними по содержанию текста.
- cостав
- свойства
- показания
- противопоказания
- шприц
- меры предосторожности
- дозировка
- применение лекарства
- реакции на желудочно-кишечный тракт
- клинические исследования
Ex. 8. Переведите предложения на английский язык:
- Всю информацию о составе лекарства и его применении вы найдете в лекарственной аннотации.
- Очень важно знать показания и противопоказания к применению препараты.
- Все лекарства проходят (undergo) клинические испытания.
- Инструменты, применяемые для введения препарата, показаны в рисунках.
- Аннотации вложены в коробочки с лекарствами или наклеены на контейнеры с лекарством, например: бутылочки, пакетики и др.
- Прежде чем принять препарат, прочитайте аннотацию к нему.
Ex. 9. Ответьте на вопросы к тексту «Drug Annotation»:
- What information does the annotation contain?
- How important is annotation?
- What are the main sections of the annotation?
- How is an important information printed in this paper?
- Is the annotation an informative paper? Why?
Ex. 10. Составьте устное сообщение (8 – 10 предложений) на английском языке, используя текст «Drug Annotation» по плану:
- The importance of the annotation as a drug instruction.
- Main chapters (sections) of the annotation.
- The ways of printing the additional and important information.
Активизация грамматики
Ex.1. Откройте скобки, поставив глагол в соответствующем времени и залоге. Переведите предложения:
- In Kathmandu people with persistent cough no longer (to sell) antibiotics or just another bottle of mixture for cough. They (to advise) to go to the nearest clinic for tuberculosis check up.
- City pharmacies (to keep) a great variety of the latest antibiotics, combinations of vitamins and antibiotics and antiallergic or hormonal drugs, sedatives and tonics and antidiarrheal medicines. Some of these (to be) effective; many (to have) no therapeutic effect and numerous drugs (to be) dangerous when used without proper medical instructions.
- The measurements (to make) before and 15, 60 and 180 minutes after a single dose of Captopril.
- The use of the drug (to be tolerated) and (there be) only two minor untoward effects.
- 13 patients with mild – to – severe uncomplicated hypertension (to be treat) with one tablet of captopril 100 mg daily taken 1 – 1,5 hours, for 8 weeks.
- The injection of leucomycin (to be discounted) after 15 days.
- Leucomycin (to be) remarkably effective for respiratory tract injections, principally for acute pharyngatis of children.
Ex.2. Составьте вопросы, на которые можно дать следующие ответы:
- Drug annotation is a drug instruction paper.
- There may be less or more detailed annotations.
- Every annotation consists of several sections.
- The section “Actions” is subdivided into microbiological, biological studies, animal pharmacology, human pharmacology, clinical studies.
- The section “Dosage and Administration” contains additional indications for adults and children regarding their age.
- Special information about the drug is given in thick or coloured type or in frames.
Ex.3. Составьте общие и специальные вопросы к следующим предложениям:
- A large number of people are troubled with palpitations, minor nervous disturbances of the cardial rhythm, precordial pains, spasms, etc.
- The main purpose of treatment in such cases is to calm the central nervous system.
- You must not use insulin after the expiry date.
- The drug is not recommended to be used during pregnancy or with cytostates.
- In patients with hypotension the systolic blood pressure should not be reduced below 90/60 mm Hg.
- Unwanted effects may occasionally occur.
- Some annotations contain visual means of explanations.
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Ex.4. Переведите следующие предложения на русский язык:
1. Like other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agents Voltaren is also contraindicated in patients in whom attacks of asthma, urticaria or acute rhinitis are precipitated by acetylsalicylic acid.
2. Over 90% is recovered unchanged in urine within 8 hours.
3. It is contra-indicated in patients with known allergy on Cephalosporin group of antibiotics.
4. Iso Muck spray must not be used in state of shock.
5. One to four grams daily in equally divided doses are to be given 6 hourly.
6. The duration of the treatment is generally short: the use of these drugs during pregnancy, or by nursing mothers or woman of child bearing potential requires that the possible benefits for the drug is to be weighed against the potential hazards to the mother and embryo or foetus.
7. Theophenical permeates throughout all tissues and body fluids in an active form and at effective concentrations.
8. Sporidex has proved to be effective for patients with osteomyelitis.
9. Do not administer the injectable form where there is a previous history of intolerance.
Практикум.
Text I
Ex.1. Прочитайте текст “Thioderazine” и скажите на русском языке, что из перечисленного он описывает:
- свойства лекарства;
- два вида одного лекарства;
- другое лекарство, предлагаемое вместо данного.
Thioderazine
Antirheumatic Agent
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